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Han nationalism is a form of ethnic nationalism asserting ethnically Han people as the exclusive constituents of the Chinese nation. It is often in dialogue with other conceptions of Chinese nationalism, often mutually-exclusive or otherwise contradictory ones. Han people are the dominant ethnic group in both states claiming to represent the Chinese nation: the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China.
Han people also constitute a sizable ethnic minority or plurality group in a number of other countries, such as Malaysia and Singapore. In the modern era, ethnicity's role in the Chinese nation continue to color conceptions of Chinese culture, geopolitics, and history. Han nationalism is to contrasted with the opposing concept of local ethnic nationalism.
Han nationalism | |||||||||
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Traditional Chinese | 漢民族主義 | ||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 汉民族主义 | ||||||||
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Unlike Chinese nationalism,Han Chinese nationalism has a historical root of being strongly stressed on the Han Chinese people,the dominant ethnic group of China that originates from Huaxia or Sinitic people. Han Chinese nationalism has often been used as a rallying force,stemming from the historical pride of the Han Chinese people in developing one of the world's earliest civilizations. [1] [2]
Since the Han dynasty,ideas of Han Chinese superiority have been frequently used in attempts to expand China's territory. Examples of this can be seen in previous Chinese invasions of Korea and Vietnam,and in historical conquests of Central Asia,Tibet,Xinjiang and Mongolia. [3] [4] [5] This was later inherited by later dynasties of China,notably the Tang dynasty and the Ming dynasty. The Tang dynasty exerted control beyond the border of old Huaxia,allowing the later Ming dynasty to become a major naval power. Han Chinese ideas of superiority were complex,with contrasting Confucian narratives of Han superiority and ones of diversity in the army and the Empire. [6] [7] [8] [9]
Han Chinese nationalism also played a key part in rallying against non-Han control of China. The Han Chinese nationalist movement led by Ming dynasty's Hongwu Emperor played an instrumental role in the overthrow of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. [10] Han Chinese nationalism was also integral to the rebellion against the Manchu Qing dynasty and became increasingly institutionalized following the Century of Humiliation. These rebellions were often led by Han Chinese nationalists,including Sun Yat-sen,who considered the Manchu Qing dynasty corrupt and immoral,and took an aggressive stance against Western imperialism. [11] [12] [13] The Boxer Rebellion in late 19th century had been seen as another specific part of Han Chinese nationalism juxtaposed against Western imperialism in China,where Han Chinese nationalists were against Western and modern ideas and sought to revive old Chinese traditions. [14] [15]
Following the fall of the Qing dynasty,Sun Yat-sen attempted to build a more multi-ethnic form of Chinese nationalism. He had some noteworthy successes,such as the rise of Nationalist China and the five-colored flag. Han Chinese nationalism remains prominent in China today. Chinese leaders have employed Han nationalist sentiments,including the ongoing Han domination of China,and promotion of nationalism,as witnessed in the Republic's domestic and foreign relations. [16]
Han chauvinism is an updated version of Han nationalism,a term which Chinese Communist Party (CCP) chairman Mao Zedong coined in order to describe the chauvinism of the Han Chinese,first on 16 March 1953,in order to criticize the ethnocentrism that existed among the dominant Han people of China. In a party directive which was drafted for the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party titled "Criticize Han Chauvinism," Mao said,"In some places,the relations between nationalities are far from normal. For Communists,this is an intolerable situation. We must go to the root and criticize the Han chauvinist ideas which exist to a serious degree among many Party members and cadres ..." [17]
It appeared again in a 1956 speech,titled Ten Major Relations ,Mao stated that "on the relationship between the Han ethnicity and minority ethnicities ... we put the emphasis on opposing Han chauvinism". [18] This anti-chauvinistic idea is part of the People's Republic of China's zhonghua minzu conception of China as a multi-ethnic nation,both historically and in the present,which includes not only the Han but also 55 ethnic minorities. This is expressed in the constitution of the People's Republic of China,which states that China is a "unitary [multiethnic] state created jointly by the people of all its ethnicities" and "it is necessary to combat big [ethnic group] chauvinism,mainly Han chauvinism,and combat local [ethnic] national[ist] chauvinism". [19]
The PRC's notions of Han chauvinism and China as a multicultural state have been subjected to criticism,mainly by the western media. One critical view is that the Han Chinese "are less homogeneous than official policy recognizes". [19] Zhonghua minzu has been criticized as an invention of the 20th century,and was adopted by the Communist Party only to criticize the failures of the rival Kuomintang (KMT),which officially promoted zhonghua minzu as part of its nationalist ideology. Many policies have been made to give privilege to minority ethnicities,leading to grudges from some of the Han Chinese. [20] Despite this,authorities in China have also denied the existence of racism or racial discrimination in China. [21]
In post-Mao China,Han chauvinism has been recognized as a threat by successive generations of its leadership,including the administration of CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping. However,Xi Jinping's concept of a Chinese Dream is believed to have distinctly Han dimensions,and it is also believed to support Han chauvinism even if it is unwittingly doing so. [22] The fusion of traditional Han chauvinism with Chinese nationalism as practiced by the modern Chinese state has been described as Han-centrism. [23]
Although Han Chinese nationalism and Chinese nationalism are different in terms of ideology,with the latter often emphasizing a more multi-ethnic form of nationalism,both forms of nationalism have frequently been connected and espoused together,due to historical and current control of China by the ethnic Han Chinese majority. The concept was first debated in the early 20th century;one of those who debated it was Zhang Taiyan,who strongly opposed the development of a multi-ethnic form of nationalism which was proposed by Yang Du and Liang Qichao,stressed the existence of the Han ethnic bloodline as evidence of the greatness of China and rejected the notion of a multiethnic China,being skeptical of non-Han ethnic groups like Manchus,Mongols,Tibetans and Turkic Muslims. [24] Zhang Taiyan strongly criticized non-Han ethnic groups,notably the Manchus,he considered the Manchus and other non-Han peoples oppressors and believed that they could not be assimilated because they had no understanding of Han Chinese culture and customs. [24] There were,however,significant proponents of a multi-ethnic form of Chinese nationalism as well,and Tibet remained independent during the rule of the Republic of China. [25] [26]
The multifaceted image of Han Chinese nationalism continued to develop during the formation of the modern Chinese state. Han Chinese nationalists had a low opinion of ethnic Uyghurs and Tibetans,viewing them as threats to the Chinese state due to their different cultures and their lack of sympathy for ethnic Han Chinese —resulting in several conflicts during the 1930s and 1940s. [27] [28] [29] [30] Han Chinese nationalism also played a role during World War II,a war which was waged in conjunction with the Second Sino-Japanese War as a part of World War II,a war in which the Han Chinese people frequently suffered,and fought,against the Japanese. [31] [32]
Although the current Chinese government has largely attempted to promote the idea of a multiethnic nationalism with Han Chinese is the main people instead of a singular ethnic nationalism,scholars and analysts have pointed about the lack of an agreed-upon definition of Chinese nationalism may have impacted on China's political decision with regard to other non-Han people and non-Chinese nations. [33] [16] [34] [35]
Since the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China in 1950,Han Chinese nationalists,with support from the PRC government,have been distributing historical documents which portray Tibetan culture as barbaric in order to justify Chinese control of the territory of Tibet;as such,many members of Chinese society have a negative view of Tibet. Han Chinese continue to maintain the view that Tibet was historically a feudal society which practiced serfdom/slavery and that this only changed due to Chinese influence in the region in order to liberate the Tibetans from its own backwardness and China's duty is to bring civilization to Tibetans. [36] [37] Furthermore,Han nationalists openly endorse Princess Wencheng,an ancient Chinese princess who purportedly married king Songsten Gampo of Tibet and introduced Buddhism to Tibet. [38] Further,Han Chinese extremists believe that Tibetans [and Mongols,Uyghurs] are actually part of the wider Han Chinese family with different genetics. [36] [39]
Since being conquered in 1758,Uyghurs from Xinjiang have had issues with the Manchurian and later Chinese governments. Han migration dating back to the Qing dynasty led to the increasing sinicization of the region,which the policy further extended to ethnic relations. [40] Han and Hui people often live closer to Uighurs and many developed a negative stereotype of them. [41]
Inner Mongolia has been largely pacified since the 20th century,thanks to massive Han migration and intermarriage;Mongols have been perceived to be better integrated into the society than that of Uyghurs and Tibetans. [42] However,this is also where the infamous Inner Mongolia incident happened,leading to deaths of 16,000 to 27,000 Mongols. [43] Further policies deemed to be anti-Mongol by the Han Chinese government had led to 2011 Inner Mongolia unrest and was followed by another wave of unrest in 2015 against the exploitation and misuse of Mongol lands,as well as perceived bias in favor of ethnic Han Chinese. [44]
In Taiwan,Han-centric Taiwanese nationalism is distinct from Han-centric Chinese nationalism. Han Taiwanese nationalist focuses on non-mainlanders and non-Austronesians,including Hokkien and Hakka. However,not all Taiwanese nationalists are Han nationalists. [45] Zheng Chenggong,who founded the Kingdom of Tungning,was a representative early Han nationalist in Taiwan. In 2004,then-Taiwanese Vice President and pro-Taiwan independence activist Annette Lu caused controversy by making Han-centric racist comments about Taiwanese indigenous peoples. [46]
China proper, also called Inner China, are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the Manchu-led Qing dynasty to describe the distinction between the historical "Han lands" (漢地)—i.e. regions long dominated by the majority Han population—and the "frontier" regions of China where more non-Han ethnic groups and new foreign immigrants reside, sometimes known as "Outer China". There is no fixed extent for China proper, as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in Chinese history. One definition refers to the original area of Chinese civilization, the Central Plain ; another to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. There was no direct translation for "China proper" in the Chinese language at the time due to differences in terminology used by the Qing to refer to the regions. Even to today, the expression is controversial among scholars, particularly in mainland China, due to issues pertaining to contemporary territorial claim and ethnic politics.
Chinese nationalism is a form of nationalism in which asserts that the Chinese people are a nation and promotes the cultural and national unity of all Chinese people. According to Sun Yat-sen's philosophy in the Three Principles of the People, Chinese nationalism is evaluated as multi-ethnic nationalism, which should be distinguished from Han nationalism or local ethnic nationalism.
Hui pan-nationalism refers to the common identity among diverse communities of Chinese-speaking Muslims. Hui pan-nationalism should be distinguished from nationalist sentiments by minority groups who are also Muslim such as those of the Uyghurs. These sentiments are grounded upon the Hui "zealously preserving and protecting their identity as enclaves ensconced in the dominant Han society." In exchange for support during the Cultural Revolution, the Hui were granted high political participation. Hui pan-nationalism was one of the first sources of modern Chinese nationalism, influenced by Western, Japanese and Soviet influences.
Territorial expansion took place during multiple periods of Chinese history, especially under the dynasties of Han, Tang, Yuan, and Qing. Chinese expansionism as a motivation or even coherent phenomenon has been contentiously discussed in regard to the contemporary People's Republic of China and its territorial claims.
Five Races Under One Union was one of the major principles upon which the Republic of China was founded following the 1911 Revolution. Its central tenet was the harmonious existence under one nation of what were considered the five major ethnic groups in China: the Han, the Manchu, the Mongols, the Hui (Muslims), and the Tibetans.
Racism in China arises from Chinese history, nationalism, sinicization, and other factors. Racism in the People's Republic of China has been documented in numerous situations. Ethnic tensions have led to numerous incidents in the country such as the Xinjiang conflict, the ongoing internment and state persecution of Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities, the 2010 Tibetan language protest, the 2020 Inner Mongolia protests, discrimination against Africans in particular and discrimination against Black people in general.
Pan-Mongolism is an irredentist idea that advocates cultural and political solidarity of Mongols. The proposed territory, called "Greater Mongolia" or "Whole Mongolia" usually includes the independent state of Mongolia, the Chinese region of Inner Mongolia, and the Russian region of Buryatia. Sometimes the autonomous republic Tuva, the Altai Republic and parts of Xinjiang, Zabaykalsky Krai, and Irkutsk Oblast are included as well. As of 2006, all areas in Greater Mongolia except Mongolia have non-Mongol majorities.
Mongolia under Qing rule was the rule of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China over the Mongolian Plateau, including the four Outer Mongolian aimags and the six Inner Mongolian aimags from the 17th century to the end of the dynasty. The term "Mongolia" is used here in the broader historical sense, and includes an area much larger than the modern-day state of Mongolia. By the early 1630s Ligdan Khan saw much of his power weakened due to the disunity of the Mongol tribes. He was subsequently defeated by the Later Jin dynasty and died soon afterwards. His son Ejei handed the Yuan imperial seal over to Hong Taiji in 1635, thus ending the rule of the Northern Yuan dynasty in Inner Mongolia. However, the Khalkha Mongols in Outer Mongolia continued to rule until they were overrun by the Dzungar Khanate in 1690, and they submitted to the Qing dynasty in 1691.
The Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission (MTAC) was a ministry-level commission of the Executive Yuan in the Republic of China. It was disbanded on 15 September 2017.
A conquest dynasty in the history of China refers to a Chinese dynasty established by non-Han ethnicities which ruled parts or all of China proper, the traditional heartland of the Han people, and whose rulers may or may not have fully assimilated into the dominant Han culture.
Zhonghua minzu is a political term in modern Chinese nationalism related to the concepts of nation-building, ethnicity, and race in the Chinese nationality.
The Dzungar genocide was the mass extermination of the Mongol Dzungar people by the Qing dynasty. The Qianlong Emperor ordered the genocide after the rebellion in 1755 by Dzungar leader Amursana against Qing rule, after the dynasty first conquered the Dzungar Khanate with Amursana's support. The genocide was perpetrated by Manchu generals of the Qing army, supported by Turkic oasis dwellers who rebelled against Dzungar rule.
Anti-Mongolianism, also called anti-Mongolian sentiment, has been prevalent throughout history, often perceiving the Mongols to be barbaric and uncivilized people with a lack of intelligence or civilized culture.
The New Qing History is a historiographical school that gained prominence in the United States in the mid-1990s by offering a major revision of history of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China.
The Qing dynasty was an imperial Chinese dynasty ruled by the Aisin Gioro clan of Manchu ethnicity. Officially known as the Great Qing, the dynastic empire was also widely known in English as China and the Chinese Empire both during its existence, especially internationally, and after the fall of the dynasty.
The Qing dynasty in Inner Asia was the expansion of the Qing dynasty's realm in Inner Asia in the 17th and the 18th century AD, including both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia, both Manchuria and Outer Manchuria, Tibet, Qinghai and Xinjiang.
Secession in China refers to several secessionist movements in the People's Republic of China. Many current separatist movements in China arise from the country's ethnic issues. Some of the factors that have created these ethnic issues include history, nationalism, economic and political disparity, religion, and other factors. China has historically had tensions between the majority Han and other minority ethnic groups, particularly in rural and border regions. Historically, other ruling ethnicities, such as the Manchu of the early-Qing dynasty, experienced ethnic issues as well.
Han chauvinism is an ideology that speaks out for the ethnic Han Chinese people and its uniqueness throughout human history. Han chauvinists believe that the current influence from the West has downgraded the development of China's own cultural customs, and in response, it has become instrumental in leading the increasingly traditionalist movement, which was launched in 2001. Participants come together both online and in person in cities across China to revitalize their vision of the authentic “Great Han” and corresponding “real China” through traditional ethnic dress and Confucian ritual.
The debate on the "Chineseness" of the Yuan and Qing dynasties is concerned with whether the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) and the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1912) can be considered "Chinese dynasties", and whether they were representative of "China" during their respective historical periods. The debate, although historiographical in nature, has political implications. Mainstream academia and successive governments of China, including the imperial governments of the Yuan and Qing dynasties, have maintained the view that they were "Chinese" and representative of "China". The debate stemmed from differing opinions on whether regimes founded by ethnic minorities could be representative of "China", where the Han Chinese were and remain the main people.
Local ethnic nationalism, simply local nationalism or local ethnic chauvinism refers to the tendency of minority nationalities to secede from China.
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