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Igbo nationalism is a range of ethnic nationalist ideologies relating to the Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria. [1] While the term is defined as seeking Igbo self-determination by some, others argue that it refers to the preservation and revival of Igbo culture and, for others, the development of Igboland stemming from the philosophy, Aku luo uno, which means "wealth builds the home". [2]
The Igbo people were united into the framework of what is currently known as Nigeria in 1914. [3] Through the process of integration, Igbo sovereignty was limited and often frustrated by the sovereignty of the British colonial power. [3] However, as the practice of colonialism faded in popularity, Igbo intellectuals led the charge in the formation of political parties. [3] The first national party, which was the National Council of Nigerians and Cameroon (NCNC), [4] was founded in 1944 and led by journalist and future president Nnamdi Azikiwe. [3] A man of Igbo descent, Azikiwe was received as a distinctly Igbo figure as opposed to a pan-Africanist or a Nigerian nationalist. [3] Thus, the activities of the NCNC represented the emergence of organized Igbo nationalism a means through which Igbo political interests could be achieved. [3]
Accordingly, the Igbo Federal Union (IFU), which was established in 1936, [5] aligned with the NCNC in order to further extend the reach of the NCNC freedom charter and to delineate a formal agenda across various Igbo organizations. [3] The Igbo Federal Union became the Igbo State Union (ISU) through this merger. [3] Though the formation of an independent state was not mentioned in this charter, Igbo political elites utilized this structure to assert their interests in a highly regionalized struggle for Nigerian independence. [3]
Following the success of the independence movement in Nigeria in 1960, the nation remained highly divided across ethnic and regional lines. [6] Following the 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom that took place in the northern and western regions of the nation, many Igbo people fled their ancestral homes in other regions for refuge in the eastern, largely Igbo region of the nation. [7] Within this context of insecurity, the eastern region demanded more autonomy within the broader federal system. [8] The eastern region under military governor Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu engaged in negotiations with the nation's military government under Major General Yakubu Gowon. [7] Through these negotiations, which were delineated in the Aburi Accord, [9] both parties suffered from a difference in interpretation regarding whether the federal military government had transitioned to a confederal military government. [7] After these policies were not instituted, Ojukwu declared independence from the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the establishment of the Republic of Biafra in 1967. [7] Thus began the Nigerian Civil War that lasted from 1967 till 1970 and ended in the dissolution of the attempted republic. (See: Nigerian Civil War and Biafra)
Igbo people in the present day have noted and lamented the exclusion and marginalization of Igbo politicians from high political office following the aftermath of the civil war. [3] In fact, the last Igbo head of state was Major General Johnson Thomas Umunnakwe Aguiyi Ironsi, the military head of state appointed following the 1966 coup. [3] Additionally, military and political appointments transpiring from 1979 to 2013 have largely overlooked Igbo candidates. [3]
In light of this issue and others, several contemporary Igbo nationalist groups have emerged, offering differing visions of Igbo political autonomy. [3] Groups such as the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB) argue for the revitalization of the Biafra project, or a sovereign Igbo state. [3] As opposed to the largely military strategy of the previous era of Igbo nationalism, the group relies on non-violent tactics in its political strategy. [4]
Via the divide-and-rule policies embarked upon by Great Britain in their colonization of what is now known as Nigeria, the ethnic groups that occupied the territory were purposefully separated and differentiated. [10] For this reason, the cultural, social, and economic characteristics that distinguished each of the major groups played an important role in public spaces. [10] The Igbo State Union (formerly the Igbo Federal Union) constituted a sociopolitical union that helped solidify an Igbo national consciousness amidst the political background of colonialism and budding nationalism. [3] In the late colonial period that followed WWII, the British colonial government's approach shifted from administrative to developmentalist; thus, civil society groups such as the Igbo State Union became increasingly important for the provision socio-political and economic advantages. [3] Namely, it enabled the Igbo people to send larger numbers of their children to school via communal association as opposed to the individual achievements or parents. [5]
The 1966 anti-Igbo Pogrom and the civil war that followed constituted large threats to the preservation of Igbo culture. [3] Political stability in a newly independent Nigeria— that is, the duration of the First Nigerian Republic— was short lived. [11] Crises such as the Western Region Crisis of 1962, the census crisis of 1963, and the election crisis of 1964-1965 signaled lack of national unity due to interethnic strife. [11] As early as 1964, a small group of majors in the military—mostly Igbo people—began to plot a military coup in 1964 due to their dissatisfaction with the corrupt practices of the federal government. [12] The event came to fruition on January 15, 1966, when Major Emmanuel Arinze Ifeajuna, Major Timothy Onwuatuegwu, Major Christian Anuforo, Major Donatus Okafor, and Major Humphrey Chukwuka overthrew the government under Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and declared martial law over the country. [13] The coup resulted in the deaths of federal officials and political figures such as Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and Premier Ahmadu Bello. [12] Major General Johnson Thomas Umunnakwe Aguiyi Ironsi emerged as the head of state under the military government. Because the majority of targets in the coup were Yoruba or Hausa-Fulani and the leader installed a result of these events was also Igbo, the coup was characterized as an attempt by the Igbo to seize control of the government. [13] Violence against Igbos began to ensue in the north and spread to the west. [13] Only five months after the original coup, a counter-coup ensued which resulted in the death of Ironsi and the installation of Major General Yakabu Gowon. [13] Anti-Igbo violence was not curbed after this transition of power, and Igbo people began to flee to the Eastern region in large numbers. [13] Following the failure of the Aburi Accord, Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu declared the Eastern Region independent for the protection of the lives and interests of the Igbo people. [13] The following Nigerian Civil War began as a police action by Gowon's government to reclaim the area and quickly devolved into a gruesome, large-scale war. [13]
Due to fact that the civil war conflict resulted in the destruction of the eastern region and the death of millions of Biafrans either through military engagements, acts of ethnic cleansing, or starvation, the nationalist movement for the creation of a Biafran state did not reemerge in full-force until 1999. [3] Igbo political elite such as Chief Ralph Uwazuruike formed MASSOB to revitalize Igbo nationalist sentiments based on conceptions of continued injustices against Igbo people. [3] The contemporary reanimation of Igbo nationalism also references the killing of Igbo people by Boko Haram in northern Nigeria as a reason for the reinstitution of the social movement. [3]
MASSOB (which has headquarters across the east and embassies internationally) has been able to leverage the development of an Igbo national consciousness for the promulgation of Biafran ideals. [3] MASSOB has rallied supporters in the southeast and abroad to observe Biafran Day in commemoration of the founding of the Republic of Biafra in 1967. [11] This act, which occurred in 2004 and 2013, contributed to the closure of major shops, banks, and other businesses in eastern states. [3] They also have contributed to the hoisting of Biafra flags in Imo state, Abia state, Enugu state, Ebonyi state, and Anambra state. [3]
As intrinsic features of the Igbo social order, communalism and entrepreneurialism pervaded Igbo community structures within the colonial era. [10] This is due in large part to the British colonial institution's imposition of ethnically divisive administrative policies. [10] In the context of colonization, which featured the native population's limited access to economic advantages, there was fierce competition between ethnic groups for employment opportunities. [3] Particularly within coastal southeastern region of the nation, Igbo people's merchant commerce was forced into competition with largely imported industrial commerce and the commercial activities of other groups. [5] Within the context of the Nigerian nationalist movement, these qualities took form in the intra-ethnic competition for national wealth and economic resources. [3] Following the Colonial Development and Welfare Acts put forth the British colonial government in 1945, economic and political power was gradually transferred to native populations— thereby, heightening each group's claims on profitable assets. [5] The Igbo State Union, formerly the Igbo Federal Union, worked alongside the NCNC in ensuring the advancement and welfare of the Igbo people in the furtherance of the Igbo's economic objectives . [3]
The Igbo pursuit of enrichment in the post-colonial context continued in the pre-colonial and colonial tradition of the pursuit of community enrichment. [5] A large part of Nigeria's post-colonial capitalist economy relied on the exportation of agricultural products. [5] Because of the poor quality of soil in the predominately Igbo southeastern region, many Igbo people began to migrate into the urban centers of other regions. [5] Due to the Igbo people's relatively high levels of education, they were able to take jobs as clerks, traders, and shopkeepers and eventually rise to the ranks of professionals, journalists, and government employees. [5] The affluence of the migrant Igbo population by way of their employment in northern cities by inspired resentment within the resident population following the events of the 1966 military coup. [5] Many of these Igbo individuals were targeted during the 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom which eventually contributed to the onset of the war. [7]
An important factor in the escalation of the Nigerian Civil War was the fact that 70 percent of the nation's oil reserves were located in the eastern region. [13] In attempts to limit support for the secessionist movement, General Gowon proclaimed that the four states that composed Nigeria would be split further into 12 states, granting ethnic minority groups their own governments. [13] One of these newly formed states was Rivers State, which held both precious oil reserves and major city Port Harcourt. [13] Though Rivers State did not join the secessionist movement, the loss of the remaining Biafran states posed similar economic risks to Nigerian economy and profits for the Biafran economy. [13]
During the civil war, the Igbo people's properties were liquidated and destroyed. [3] After Biafra's surrender, the Nigerian government delegitimized all of Biafra's currency and gave all of its former citizens 20 pounds in exchange for any sum of Biafran pounds. [14]
The call for the development of Igboland is especially significant considering the lasting effects of the Nigerian Civil War. As a legacy of the conflict, the Igbo people continue to possess significantly smaller amounts of national resources, particularly including oil. [3] The bulk of Nigeria's resources are owned by Yoruba and Hausa individuals. [3] Additionally, Igbo men and women continue to experience anti-Igbo discriminatory attitudes from members of other ethnic groups that affects the success of their businesses. [3] Groups such as Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB) perceive the Nigerian government's post-war policies as a form of economic strangulation that has persistently limited the economic agency of the Igbo people. [15]
According to their 2002 Constitution, civil society groups such as Ohanaeze Ndigbo have formed to act as a conduit between the government and the people to negotiate for the socio-economic development of Igbo land. [3]
Biafra (/biˈɑfɹə/), officially the Republic of Biafra, was a partially recognised country in West Africa that declared independence from Nigeria and existed from 1967 until 1970. Its territory consisted of the former Eastern Region of Nigeria, predominantly inhabited by the Igbo ethnic group. Biafra was established on 30 May 1967 by Igbo military officer and Eastern Region governor C. Odumegwu Ojukwu under his presidency, following a series of ethnic tensions and military coups after Nigerian independence in 1960 that culminated in the 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom. The Nigerian military proceeded to attempt to reclaim the territory of Biafra, resulting in the start of the Nigerian Civil War. Biafra was formally recognised by Gabon, Haiti, Ivory Coast, Tanzania, and Zambia while receiving de facto recognition and significant military support from France. After nearly three years of war, during which around two million Biafran civilians died, President Ojukwu fled to Ivory Coast in exile as the Nigerian military was approaching the capital of Biafra. Philip Effiong became the second president of Biafra, and he oversaw the surrender of Biafran forces to Nigeria.
The Republic of Benin was a short-lived unrecognized secessionist state in West Africa that existed for seven hours in 1967. It was established on 19 September 1967 during the Nigerian Civil War as a puppet state of Biafra, following its occupation of Nigeria's Mid-Western Region, and named after its capital, Benin City, with Albert Nwazu Okonkwo as its head of government.
Chukwuemeka "Emeka" Odumegwu Ojukwu was a Nigerian military officer and politician who served as President of the Republic of Biafra from 1967 to 1970 during the Nigerian Civil War. He previously served as military governor of the Eastern Region of Nigeria, which he declared as the independent nation of Biafra.
Yakubu Dan-Yumma "Jack" Gowon is a retired Nigerian army general and military leader. As head of state of Nigeria, Gowon presided over a controversial Nigerian Civil War and delivered the famous "no victor, no vanquished" speech at the war's end to promote healing and reconciliation. The Nigerian Civil War is listed as one of the deadliest in modern history, with some accusing Gowon of crimes against humanity and genocide. Gowon maintains that he committed no wrongdoing during the war and that his leadership saved the country.
The Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Nigerian–Biafran War or the Biafran War, was a civil war fought between Nigeria and the Republic of Biafra, a secessionist state which had declared its independence from Nigeria in 1967. Nigeria was led by General Yakubu Gowon, while Biafra was led by Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka "Emeka" Odumegwu Ojukwu. Biafra represented the nationalist aspirations of the Igbo ethnic group, whose leadership felt they could no longer coexist with the federal government dominated by the interests of the Muslim Hausa-Fulanis of Northern Nigeria. The conflict resulted from political, economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions which preceded the United Kingdom's formal decolonisation of Nigeria from 1960 to 1963. Immediate causes of the war in 1966 included a military coup, a counter-coup, and anti-Igbo pogroms in Northern Nigeria.
The Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB) is a secessionist movement in Nigeria, associated with Igbo nationalism, which supports the recreation of an independent state of Biafra. It was founded in 1999 and is led by an Indian-trained lawyer Ralph Uwazuruike, with headquarters in Okwe, in the Okigwe district of Imo State.
Anarchism in Nigeria has its roots in the organization of various stateless societies that inhabited pre-colonial Nigeria, particularly among the Igbo people. After the British colonization of Nigeria, revolutionary syndicalism became a key factor in the anti-colonial resistance, although the trade union movement deradicalized and took a more reformist approach following the country's independence. The contemporary Nigerian anarchist movement finally emerged from the left-wing opposition to the military dictatorship in the late 1980s and saw the creation of the Awareness League.
The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) later changed to the National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, was a Nigerian nationalist political party from 1944 to 1966, during the period leading up to independence and immediately following independence.
The flag of Biafra, used by the Republic of Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970), consists of a horizontal tricolour of red, black, and green, charged with a golden rising sun over a golden bar. The eleven rays of the sun represent the eleven former provinces of Biafra. The rays are typically long and slender with the lowest rays being nearly horizontal and the remaining rays spread evenly between.
Dr. Okoi Arikpo was a Nigerian chemist, anthropologist, lawyer, politician and diplomat. He served as the foreign minister of Nigeria.
The First Republic was the republican government of Nigeria between 1963 and 1966 governed by the first republican constitution. The country's government was based on a federal form of the Westminster system. The period between 1 October 1960, when the country gained its independence and 15 January 1966, when the first military coup d’état took place, is also generally referred to as the First Republic. The first Republic of Nigeria was ruled by different leaders representing their regions as premiers in a federation during this period. Leaders include Ahmadu Bello Northern Nigeria 1959–1966, Obafemi Awolowo Western Nigeria 1959–1960, Samuel Akintola Western Nigeria 1960–1966, Michael Okpara Eastern Nigeria 1960–1966, and Dennis Osadebay Mid-Western Nigeria 1964–1966.
Anti-Igbo sentiment encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings towards the Igbo people. The Igbo people make up all of south-eastern Nigeria and a part of south-south Nigeria's geopolitical zones. Igbophobia is observable in critical and hostile behaviour such as political and religious discrimination and violence towards Igbos.
A series of massacres were committed against Igbo people and other people of southern Nigerian origin living in northern Nigeria starting in May 1966 and reaching a peak after 29 September 1966. Between 8,000 and 30,000 Igbos and easterners have been estimated to have been killed. A further 1 million Igbos fled the Northern Region into the East. In response to the killings some northerners were massacred in Port Harcourt and other eastern cities. These events led to the secession of the eastern Nigerian region and the declaration of the Republic of Biafra, which ultimately led to the Nigeria-Biafra war.
Nigerian nationalism asserts that Nigerians as a nation should promote the cultural unity of Nigerians. Nigerian nationalism is territorial nationalism and emphasizes a cultural connection of the people to the land, particularly the Niger and the Benue Rivers. It first emerged in the 1920s under the influence of Herbert Macaulay, who is considered to be the founder of Nigerian nationalism. It was founded because of the belief in the necessity for the people living in the British colony of Nigeria of multiple backgrounds to unite as one people to be able to resist colonialism. The people of Nigeria came together as they recognized the discrepancies of British policy. "The problem of ethnic nationalism in Nigeria came with the advent of colonialism. This happened when disparate, autonomous, heterogeneous and sub-national groups were merged to form a nation. Again, the colonialists created structural imbalances within the nation in terms of socio-economic projects, social development and establishment of administrative centres. This imbalance deepened the antipathies between the various ethnic nationalities in Nigeria ." The Nigerian nationalists' goal of achieving an independent sovereign state of Nigeria was achieved in 1960 when Nigeria declared its independence and British colonial rule ended. Nigeria's government has sought to unify the various peoples and regions of Nigeria since the country's independence in 1960.
The Operation UNICORD was an offensive launched by the Nigerian Army at the beginning of the Nigerian Civil War. It involved the capture of 6 major Biafran towns near their northern border.
The Invasion of Port Harcourt was a military conflict between Nigerian and Biafran military forces.
The Midwest Invasion of 1967 codenamed Operation Torch. was a military operation between Nigerian and Biafran military forces during the Nigerian Civil War. The invasion began on August 9 when 3,000 Biafran soldiers led by General Victor Banjo crossed the River Niger Bridge into Asaba. Upon reaching Agbor, the Biafrans split up. With the 12th Battalion moving west capturing Benin City and Ore, the 18th Battalion swung south, taking Warri, Sapele and Ughelli, while the 13th Battalion headed north for Auchi, Agenebode and Okene. Simultaneously, a plot to capture Mid-Western Governor David Ejoor at his home in Benin failed. Nevertheless, the Biafrans, meeting virtually no resistance, had seized the entire Mid-Western Region in less than 12 hours.
The Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) is a separatist group in Nigeria that aims to restore the defunct Republic of Biafra, a country which seceded from Nigeria prior to the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970). Since 2021, IPOB and other Biafran separatist groups have been fighting a low-level guerilla conflict in southeastern Nigeria against the Nigerian government. The group was founded in 2012 by Nnamdi Kanu and Uche Mefor. Kanu is known as a British Nigerian political activist known for his advocacy of the contemporary Biafran independence movement. It was deemed a terrorist organization by the Nigerian government in 2017 under the Nigerian Terrorism Act. As of May 2022, the United Kingdom started denying asylum to members of IPOB who engaged in human rights abuses, though the U.K. government clarified that IPOB had not been designated as a terrorist organisation.
The 2015–2016 Killing of Biafran Protesters refers to the killing of demonstrators demanding the restoration of the sovereignty of the Republic of Biafra by Nigerian security forces, especially the Nigerian army, across the southeastern parts of Nigeria. The demonstrations were spearheaded by several separatist movements. In addition, residents of the above-mentioned region have often been subjected to conditions synonymous with those obtainable in a Police State.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Stateless nationalism in Africa | |
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