Igbo literature encompasses both oral and written works of fiction and nonfiction created by the Igbo people in the Igbo language. This literary tradition reflects the cultural heritage, history, and linguistic diversity of the Igbo community. The roots of Igbo literature trace back to ancient oral traditions that included chants, folk songs, narrative poetry, and storytelling. These oral narratives were frequently recited during rituals, childbirth ceremonies, and gatherings. Proverbs and riddles were also used to convey wisdom and entertain children.
The emergence of written Igbo literature can be dated to the late 19th century, coinciding with the arrival of Christian missionaries who published Igbo religious journals and books, contributing to the development of modern Igbo literature. Early works in the Igbo language include History of the Mission of the Evangelical Brothers in the Caribbean (1777) and The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789), which incorporated Igbo terms and aspects of Igbo life. Christian missionary societies, such as the Church Missionary Society, played a role in the transition from oral to written literature in Igbo land. Missionaries like Edwin Norris and John Clarke translated and published Igbo vocabularies and grammatical elements.
The "Isuama period," characterised by the use of the Isuama dialect, gave way to the Union Igbo period, which utilised the dialects of Owerri and Umuahia for translations. Notable translations, including the New and Old Testaments, expanded the written Igbo literary canon. Traditional Igbo theatre, often associated with communal festivals and masquerade dramas, presented a unique form of "total theatre." With the colonial era came adaptations of these traditions, incorporating socio-political themes. Contemporary written Igbo theatre and poetry began to flourish after the Nigerian Civil War, serving as a means of political expression and resistance. Writers like Anthony Uchenna Ubesie, Okeke Chika Jerry and Julie Onwuchekwa played roles in the development of modern Igbo literary works.
History
Oral literature
During the precolonial era, Igbos practiced oral literature which included chants made by women, folk songs, narrative poetry, and oral storytelling (Igbo: ife) which were folktales.[1] Chants and poetry were sung during rituals and childbirth ceremonies. These chants, although sometimes rare, were accompanied by horn players.[2]
Oral storytelling is categorised into three categories: tales with songs, tales without songs, and tales sung without prose.[3] Oral storytelling was told to children by young adults and most times by mothers when household chores were done. Oral storytelling was often told at night, particularly by moonlight, serving as a form of education for children.[4] These oral types of storytelling may be recited by individuals or groups of people, sometimes accompanied by singing and musical accompaniments. [5]Proverbs were an integral part of the life of the Igbo people and were perpetually on the lips of the elders, reflecting their wisdom and experiences.[6] Riddles served as a form of entertainment for children, testing their wit and cultural knowledge.[2]
Written literature
Before the arrival of Europeans, the Igbo people had a form of writing known as Nsịbịdị, which was prevalent among the Igbo in Aro, Cross River, and neighbouring regions.[7] Additionally, other indigenous systems, such as uli among the Ngwa people, Akwụkwọ mmụọ in parts of Okigwe, and the Aniocha writing system in western Igboland, served as means of communication and artistic expression.[8] The introduction of Western education and Christian teachings led to a decline in the use of Nsibidi.[9]
The first documented publication containing Igbo terms was the book History of the Mission of the Evangelical Brothers in the Caribbean (German: Geschichte der Mission der Evangelischen Brüder auf den Carabischen Inseln) by G.C.A. Oldendorp, published in 1777. Oldendorp spoke to the African slaves on the islands and recorded vocabulary for 28 African languages, including two forms of Igbo, Ibo and Karabari.[10][11] In 1789, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano was published in London by Olaudah Equiano, a former slave, and it included 79 Igbo words, along with detailed descriptions of Igbo life based on Equiano's experiences in Essaka.[11][12] In 1837, during the Niger Expedition of 1832-1834, Scottish merchant Macgregor Laird published a wordbook compiled from the Igbo homeland.[13]
The transition from oral to written literature in Igbo land was influenced by the Church Missionary Society.[14] Following the Niger Expedition of 1841, Edwin Norris and James Schön, accompanied by Samuel Ajayi Crowther and Igbo interpreters, John Christopher Taylor and Simon Jonas, attempted to communicate with the Igbos using an Igbo vocabulary of 1600 words.[15][16] However, communication difficulties led Schön to shift his efforts to the Hausa-speaking region.[15]
John Clarke and Joseph Merrick jointly published Specimens Of Dialects, Short Vocabularies Of Languages: And Notes Of Countries And Customs In Africa, which included approximately 250 Igbo words.[17] In 1854, Sigismund Koelle published Polyglotta Africana, featuring 300 Igbo words in five different dialects.[18][17] In the same year, William Balfour Baikie included a short Igbo vocabulary in his work, Narrative of an Exploring Voyage up the Rivers Kwora and Binue.[17]
Following the British Niger Expeditions of 1854 and 1857, Samuel Ajayi Crowther produced a primer for the Igbo language in 1857, written in the Isuama dialect.[19][20][21][22] A revised edition of Crowther's primer was published in 1859 by John Christopher Taylor, who had established a school in Onitsha with Simon Jonas. This primer served as a textbook for the school.[21][16] In 1861, James Schön, in collaboration with Taylor, published Oku Ibo: Grammatical Elements of Ibo Language.[23] In Grammatical Elements Schön criticised the translations made by Taylor for failing to include folktales and native proverbs.[23][24] In 1869, Taylor published Igbo proverbs as an appendix to The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger, a journal he co-edited with Crowther.[25] Shortly afterwards, he withdrew from the Niger Mission due to a heated Taylor-Schön debacle.[26] Subsequently, in 1870, W. F. Smart, a catechist in Isuama, authored a primer based on Taylor's work.[27]
In 1881, Samuel Ajayi Crowther compiled the Vocabulary of the Ibo Language, the first comprehensive Igbo dictionary, which was later revised and expanded jointly by Crowther and Schön in 1883 as Vocabulary of the Ibo Language, Part II, an English-Igbo dictionary.[28] The enactment of the first education ordinance in 1882 had a temporary impact on the development of West African languages, resulting in a hiatus in Igbo language publications until 1892. In that year, Julius Spencer, a Sierra Leonean missionary based in Onitsha, published An Elementary Grammar of the Igbo Language. [29]
In 1913, the translation of the New Testament and Old Testament into Igbo by Thomas John Dennis and a group of translators marked the end of the "Isuama period," which used the Isuama dialect, and the beginning of the "Union Igbo period," which used the dialects of Owerri and Umuahia. Dennis continued to be acclaimed for his translations and literary contributions until his death in 1917.[30] Notable translations were made during this period, including Pilgrim's Progress, translated to Ije Nke Onye Kraịst, and Dick Udensi Ogan's translation of Grimms' Fairy Tales into Akụkọ Ifo Grim Kọrọ.[31]
In 1923, Israel E. Iwekanuno published Akuko Ala Obosi, a 262-page history book narrating the history of Obosi town.[32] This was followed by the publication of the first Igbo fiction novel, Omenuko, authored by Pita Nwana in 1932 and published in 1933 by Longman, Green and Co.[33][34] In 1963, a transliterated edition of Omenuko by J. O. Iroaganachi, referred to as the "Official Orthography Edition," was published by Longman Nigeria.[35]Omenuko is considered a foundational work in Igbo literature.[36] Shortly after the publication of Omenuko,Ala Bingo by D. N. Achara was published in 1937.[37]
Starting from 1941, following a report by Ida C. Ward, the "Union Igbo period" came to an end, and the "Central Igbo period" began. This period witnessed the establishment of magazines such as Amamihe, the publication of guidebooks, and the translation of major European classic literature. However, there was a limited output of indigenous fiction during this period, with most works and translations sponsored or published by the government or Christian missionaries.[38] In 1963, the second major Igbo fiction novel, Ije Odumodu Jere by Leopold Bell-Gam, was published. It was transliterated from the Lepsius orthography into Central Igbo for publication.[39][36] However, literature like Bell-Gam's remained limited due to the multiplicity of the new standard orthography.[38]
Following the outbreak of the Nigerian Civil War, literary activities were temporarily suspended, leading to the emergence of the Standard Igbo period after the war.[40]
Traditional and modern theatre
Igbo traditional arts in the precolonial era have been acknowledged by scholars as encompassing what they term "total theatre".[41] Traditional Igbo theatre includes the Igbo masquerade drama, which originated from ancestral worship.[42]
Precolonial Igbo theatre primarily conveyed its messages visually, relying on music, dance, and symbolism. It was deeply integrated into festivals and ceremonies, often performed by amateurs rather than professionals, as is the case with modern theatre.[41][43]
Traditional Igbo theatre includes the Odo and Aba Ugwu performances among the Nsukka and Udi people, the Okumkpa theater in Afikpo, and the Owu and Ikoro festivals of the Ngwa people.[44][45]
The introduction of colonial rule brought about changes to these festivals, societies, and ceremonies. Traditional theatre adapted to a new socio-political environment as a means of preserving its essence.[46] Plays and dramas addressing issues of tyranny began to emerge in places like Okpatu and Ngwa land, particularly during periods when secret societies were suppressed.[47]
Contemporary written Igbo theatre emerged in 1974 with the publication of Udo Ka Mma by Anelechi B. Chukuezi. However, it's worth noting that Igbo written plays have a limited readership. To address this, plays have been made compulsory for students at the secondary and university levels.[48]
Traditional and modern poetry
Early Igbo poetry were transmitted orally from one generation to another.[49] Each generation had artists who contributed new poems to the society, but the names of these poets are lost due to lack of orthographic documentation.[49] Prior to "Western civilisation, the poetry of the Igbo was well developed, and it also served the sociological needs of the people."[49]
Igbo poetry is classified into two parts: panegyric and elegiac poetry. Panegyric poetry is seen during childbirth, love poems and rituals while elegiac poetry can be seen in times of war, burials and satirical poems.[50]
One of the earliest attempts at writing Igbo poetry were made by the Church Missionary Society in 1934 with the translation of the Book of Common Prayer into Akwụkwọ Ekpelu nke Anekpelu Cuku n'Ogbo. The translations accepted hymns written by native Igbo's and were branded as "original". This attempt, however, is dismissed by scholars since the attempt was made solely for to gain native converts.[51]
Contemporary Igbo poetry grew stronger during and after the Nigerian civil war. Poetry served as an expression of political resistance and campaigns for good governance.[52]Joseph C. Maduekwe, a Nigerian writer who worked at the radio station of the Biafrian army presented chants known as Onyekulum on behalf of an Igbo masquerade called Ayaka in order to boost the morale of the Biafrian soldiers in the frontline and deteriorating civilians.[53] The manuscript used by Maduekwe was never published and thus is considered as oral poetry.[53]
In 1971, Romanus N. Egudu and Donatus Nwoga published the first transcribed oral Igbo poetic text Poetic Heritage, the anthology is however not considered to be a written Igbo poetry because it was written in English and they were not originally written by Egudu and Nwoga.[54]
The first written Igbo poetry Akpa Uche was published in 1975 by Oxford University Press and edited by Romanus M. Ekechukwu. The anthology featured 65 poems from 13 poets and was instrumental in the publication of subsequent anthologies and poems.[54] It also "became epicentre of poetic teaching and discourse in academic institutions where the study of Igbo poetry already started with the study of transcribed oral texts."[55] From 1975 to 2015, there have a total of 52 anthologies of written Igbo poetry.[51]
Notable Igbo writers
Tony Ubesie succeeded in one aspect: proving to the Igbo man that a good novel is a possibility in Igbo. That has not only created a wide readership for Igbo Literature but also encouraged other authors to try their hands in writing in Igbo.
—Ernest Emenyonu, The Literary History of the Igbo Novel, p.116
The list of Igbo literary authors with works written in Igbo includes both established and emerging male and female writers:
Anthony Uchenna Ubesie (22 February 1950 — 11 February 1994) was an Igbo-language novelist, poet, playwright. Ubesie published series of novels from 1973 till his death. His novels include Ukwa Ruo Oge Ya Ọ Daa (1973) Isi Akwu Dara Nala (1973), Mmiri Oku Eji Egbu Mbe (1974), Ụkpana Okpoko Buuru (1975), Jụọ Obinna (1977). [56][57]
Julie Onwuchekwa (b. 1944) is an Igbo-language novelist whose novel Chinagọrọm was the first novel has been described as a kick against patriarchy in Igbo.[58]
Ude Odilora is a Nigerian secondary teacher who wrote Okpa Aku Eri Eri in 1981. Odilora's novel is read in educational institutions and by "the general reader in Eastern Nigeria." Its theme is the struggle for material wealth in Nigerian society.[59][36]
Igbo is the principal native language cluster of the Igbo people, an ancient ethnicity in the Southeastern part of Nigeria.
Chinua Achebe was a Nigerian novelist, poet, and critic who is regarded as a central figure of modern African literature. His first novel and magnum opus, Things Fall Apart (1958), occupies a pivotal place in African literature and remains the most widely studied, translated, and read African novel. Along with Things Fall Apart, his No Longer at Ease (1960) and Arrow of God (1964) complete the "African Trilogy". Later novels include A Man of the People (1966) and Anthills of the Savannah (1987). In the West, Achebe is often referred to as the "father of African literature", although he vigorously rejected the characterization.
The Igbo people are an ethnic group in Nigeria. They are primarily found in Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo States. A sizable Igbo population is also found in Delta and Rivers States. Ethnic Igbo populations are found in Cameroon, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea, as migrants as well as outside Africa. There has been much speculation about the origins of the Igbo people, which are largely unknown. Geographically, the Igbo homeland is divided into two unequal sections by the Niger River—an eastern and a western section. The Igbo people are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa.
Christopher Ifekandu Okigbo was a Nigerian poet, teacher, and librarian, who died fighting for the independence of Biafra. He is today widely acknowledged as an outstanding postcolonial English-language African poet and one of the major modernist writers of the 20th century.
Olaudah Equiano, known for most of his life as Gustavus Vassa, was a writer and abolitionist. According to his memoir, he was from the village of Essaka in modern southern Nigeria. Enslaved as a child in West Africa, he was shipped to the Caribbean and sold to a Royal Navy officer. He was sold twice more before purchasing his freedom in 1766.
Samuel Crowther, was a Yoruba linguist, clergyman, and the first African Anglican bishop of West Africa. Born in Osogun, he and his family were captured by Fulani slave raiders when he was about twelve years old. This took place during the Yoruba civil wars, notably the Owu wars of 1821–1829, where his village Osogun was ransacked. Ajayi was later on resold to Portuguese slave dealers, where he was put on board to be transported to the New World through the Atlantic.
Nigerian literature may be roughly defined as the literary writing by citizens of the nation of Nigeria for Nigerian readers, addressing Nigerian issues. This encompasses writers in a number of languages, including not only English but Igbo, Urhobo, Yoruba, and in the northern part of the county Hausa and Nupe. More broadly, it includes British Nigerians, Nigerian Americans and other members of the African diaspora.
African literature is literature from Africa, either oral ("orature") or written in African and Afro-Asiatic languages. Examples of pre-colonial African literature can be traced back to at least the fourth century AD. The best-known is the Kebra Negast, or "Book of Kings."
Chief Sir Ernest Emenyonu is a Nigerian academic, who is an African literature critic and professor. He was formerly head of the department of English and Literary Studies, Dean of the Faculty of Arts, and Deputy Vice-Chancellor of the University of Calabar, in that order, through the 1980s and 1990s. He was also Provost of Alvan Ikoku College of Education now Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Educationˌ Owerri in Imo stateˌ Nigeria (1992–1995).
Yoruba literature is the spoken and written literature of the Yoruba people, one of the largest ethno-linguistic groups in Nigeria and the rest of Africa. The Yoruba language is spoken in Nigeria, Benin, and Togo, as well as in dispersed Yoruba communities throughout the world.
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African, first published in 1789 in London, is the autobiography of Olaudah Equiano, an African from what is now Nigeria who was enslaved in childhood and eventually earned his freedom and became an abolitionist in the United Kingdom.
Oyinbo is an early Yoruba word used to refer to Caucasians. In the 1470s, the first Portuguese birth occurred in Eko, in Yorubaland, later called Lagos. The word was first used by the Yoruba to describe the Portuguese. It would later extend to all Europeans. Many years later, the word became used for anyone influenced by European tradition, customs, and culture, especially once-enslaved returnees. Oyinbo is generally used to refer to a person of European descent, African perceived not to be culturally Yoruba, or to people of the Human race who are light-skinned. The word is generally understood by most Nigerians and many other Africans.
Catherine Obianuju Acholonu was a Nigerian author, researcher and political activist. She served as the Senior Special Adviser (SSA) to President Olusegun Obasanjo on Arts and Culture and was a founder-member of the Association of Nigerian Authors (ANA).
Sam Uzochukwu is a Nigerian academic and expert on Igbo oral poetry.
Obioma Paul Iwuanyanwu known mononymously as Obiwu, is a Nigerian-American writer and professor. He is a survivor of the Igbo genocide in Nigeria (1966–1970), and teaches World Literature and Critical Theory in the Humanities Department at Central State University.
Thomas John Dennis (1869-1917) was an Anglican priest who was the main translator of the Bible into the Igbo language.
Chief Frederick Chidozie Ogbalu (1927—1990) known predominantly as F. C. Ogbalu, was a Nigerian linguist and educator. He is predominantly known for standardizing Igbo language and is often called the "father" of Igbo language and culture. In 1949, he founded the Society for Promoting Igbo Language and Culture. Ogbalu served as the society's president for many years.
Nwosu Pita Nwana was a Nigerian novelist and carpenter. He is chiefly known as the writer of the first Igbo novel Omenuko. Nwana's Omenuko is regarded as the bedrock for fiction in Igbo literature.
Anthony Uchenna Ubesie was a Nigerian novelist, poet, playwright, broadcaster, educator, community leader, actor, and producer. He is widely known as one of the pioneers of early Igbo literature.
Udekwesiri Odilora was a Nigerian novelist and secondary school teacher. He was the author of Oka Aku Eri Eri, considered one of the foremost novels in Igbo literature.
↑ Igbo literary critic Mbube Nwi-Akeeri explained that Western theories cannot effectively capture and explain oral literature, particularly those indigenous to regions such as Africa. The reason is that there are elements to oral traditions in these places that cannot be captured by words alone, such as gestures, dance, and the interaction between the storyteller and the audience. According to Nwi-Akeeri, oral literature is not only a narrative, but also a social performance. Cf. Nwi-Akeeri, Mbube (2017). "Oral literature in Nigeria: A Search for Critical Theory". Research Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies. 3 (2): 41–51. ISSN2579-0528.
↑ Slogar, Christopher (2005). Ekpo Eyo (ed.). Iconography and Continuity in West Africa: Calabar Terracottas and the Arts of the Cross River Region of Nigeria/Cameroon. University of Maryland. p.155.
↑ Hair, Paul Edward Hedley (1967). The Early Study of Nigerian Language: Essays and Bibliographies. Volume 7: West African Language Monographs. Cambridge University Press. pp.69–99.
↑ Adedeji, J.A (1971). "The Church and the Emergence of the Nigerian Theatre, 1866-1914". Journal of Historical Society of Nigeria. 6 (1): 25–45. JSTOR41856915.
↑ Ogbonna, Elisha O. (2022). Advanced Igbo Language: A Simplified Guide to Igbo Orthography Phonology, Morphology and Lexicology. Prinoelio Press. p.22. ISBN9781777746148.
Achebe, Nnamdi (2014). "The contexts and functions of Igbo oral poetry". Awka Journal of Linguistics and Languages. Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University. 8.
Amankulor, J. Ndukaku; Okafor, Chinyere G. (1988). "Continuity and Change in Traditional Nigerian Theatre Among the Igbo in the Era of Colonial Politics". Ufahamu. James S. Coleman African Studies Center. 6 (3): 35–50.
Azuonye, Chukwuma (1992). "The Development of Written Igbo Literature". In Adiele Eberechukwu Afigbo (ed.). Ground Work of Igbo History. Ethnohistorical Studies 1. Vista Books. ISBN978-134-400-8.
Igwe, Austine Uchechukwu; Obiakor, Nwachukwu (2015). "The historical emergence of 'Union Igbo Bible' and its impact on Igbo language development in the twentieth century". International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development. 2 (1): 70–75. ISSN2349-4182.
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