Secularism in Nigeria

Last updated August 28, 2024

Secularism in Nigeria is a legal and constitutional principle that states that the government of Nigeria and its states shall not adopt any religion as a state religion,^[1] and that every person shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.^[1] Secularism in Nigeria is derived from the Constitution of Nigeria, which is the supreme law of the country.^[2] Secularism in Nigeria aims to ensure and protect the religious diversity and freedom of all citizens, regardless of their faith or belief.^[3]

History

Pre-colonial era

Before the colonial era, Nigeria was inhabited by various ethnic groups,^[4] each with its own culture, language, and religion.^[5] Some of the major ethnic groups include the Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Fulani, Kanuri, Ijaw, Tiv, and Edo.^[4] The religions practised by these groups include Islam, Christianity, and various forms of Traditional African religions.^[6] Islam was introduced to northern Nigeria by Arab traders and missionaries in the 11th century, and became the dominant religion of the Hausa, Fulani, and Kanuri peoples.^[7] Christianity was brought to southern Nigeria by European missionaries in the 15th century, and spread among the Igbo, Yoruba, Edo, and other peoples.^[8] Traditional African religions were indigenous to Nigeria, and involved the worship of various gods, spirits, ancestors, and natural forces.^[9]

The pre-colonial era was characterized by a high degree of religious diversity and tolerance among the different ethnic groups.^[10] There was no concept of a state religion or a secular state in pre-colonial Nigeria.^[3] Religion was mainly a personal matter, and each group had its own religious institutions and authorities.^[3] There were also cases of inter-religious dialogue and cooperation among Muslims, Christians, and traditionalists.^[11] For example, some Muslim rulers employed Christian advisers and diplomats, while some Christian kings adopted Islamic titles and practices.^[12] Some traditional rulers also patronized both Islamic and Christian schools and scholars.^[12]

Colonial era

The colonial era began in the late 19th century, when Britain established its control over Nigeria through treaties, wars, and annexations.^[13] Britain divided Nigeria into two protectorates: the Northern Protectorate and the Southern Protectorate.^[14] The Northern Protectorate was predominantly Muslim, while the Southern Protectorate was predominantly Christian and traditionalist.^[14] Britain adopted a policy of indirect rule in Nigeria, which meant that it governed through local rulers who were loyal to the British crown.^[15] Britain also introduced its own legal system, education system, and administration system, which were based on Western values and norms.^[13] These systems often conflicted with the existing religious and cultural systems of the Nigerians, and caused resentment and resistance among the people.^[13]

The colonial era also witnessed the emergence of nationalism and anti-colonial movements in Nigeria, which sought to end British rule and achieve independence.^[16] Some of these movements were based on ethnic or regional identities, while others were based on religious or ideological affiliations.^[16] Some of the prominent nationalist leaders include Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo, Ahmadu Bello, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, and Herbert Macaulay.^[17] These leaders had different visions for the future of Nigeria, and often disagreed on the role of religion in politics and society.^[17] Some of them advocated for a secular state, while others advocated for a state based on Islamic or Christian principles.^[17]^[16]

Post-colonial era

Nigeria gained its independence from Britain on 1 October 1960, and became a federal republic on 1 October 1963.^[18] The post-colonial era has been marked by political instability, military coups, civil war, ethnic conflicts, religious violence, corruption, and economic crises.^[18] Nigeria has also experienced several constitutional changes, which have affected the status and interpretation of secularism in the country.^[3] The first constitution of Nigeria was adopted in 1960, and was based on the Westminster model of parliamentary democracy.^[19] The constitution declared Nigeria to be a sovereign state, but did not explicitly mention secularism or state religion.^[19] However, it guaranteed the right to freedom of religion and conscience for all citizens, and prohibited discrimination on grounds of religion.^[19] The constitution also provided for the establishment of Sharia courts of appeal in the Northern Region, which had jurisdiction over matters of Islamic personal law.^[20]

The second constitution of Nigeria was adopted in 1963 and was largely similar to the first constitution.^[21] The only major difference was that it proclaimed Nigeria to be a republic, and replaced the British monarch with a Nigerian president as the head of state.^[21] The constitution also retained the provisions on religious freedom, non-discrimination, and Sharia courts of appeal.^[21]

The third constitution of Nigeria was adopted in 1979, after a period of military rule that lasted from 1966 to 1979.^[22] The constitution introduced a presidential system of government, with a bicameral legislature and an independent judiciary.^[22] The constitution also explicitly stated that Nigeria is a secular state, and that no government or state shall adopt any religion as state religion.^[22] The constitution also reaffirmed the right to freedom of religion and conscience for all citizens, and prohibited discrimination on grounds of religion.^[22] The constitution also expanded the scope of Sharia courts of appeal to cover all states that desired them, and gave them jurisdiction over civil proceedings involving questions of Islamic law.^[22]

The fourth constitution of Nigeria was adopted in 1989, after another period of military rule that lasted from 1983 to 1993.^[23] The constitution was similar to the third constitution in terms of its structure and content.^[23] However, it added some provisions that were aimed at promoting national unity and integration among the diverse ethnic and religious groups in Nigeria.^[23] For example, it required that every political party must reflect the federal character of Nigeria in its membership and leadership,^[24] and that every candidate for election must have support from at least two-thirds of the states in Nigeria.^[24]

The fifth and current constitution of Nigeria was adopted in 1999, after yet another period of military rule that lasted from 1993 to 1999.^[25] The constitution is largely based on the third and fourth constitutions, with some amendments and modifications.^[26] At chapter one article ten, the constitution reaffirms that Nigeria is a secular state, and that no government or state shall adopt any religion as state religion.^[2] The constitution also reiterates the right to freedom of religion and conscience for all citizens and prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.^[25] The constitution also maintains the provision for Sharia courts of appeal in states that desire them but limits their jurisdiction to matters relating to Islamic personal law.^[25]

Challenges

Secularism in Nigeria faces many challenges from various sources and factors, such as:

Religious diversity

Nigeria is a highly religious country, with about 51.1% of its population being Muslim, 46.9% being Christian, and 2% being traditionalist or adherent of other faiths according to an estimate by Pew Research Center.^[27] The religious diversity in Nigeria reflects the ethnic diversity in the country, as different ethnic groups tend to follow different religions.^[28] For example, most Hausa-Fulani are Muslim, most Igbo are Christian, most Yoruba are either Muslim or Christian, etc.^[29] The religious diversity in Nigeria poses a challenge for secularism, as different religious groups have different interests, demands, and expectations from the state.^[30] Some religious groups may seek more recognition, representation, or protection from the state than others.^[30] Some religious groups may also seek to influence or control the state's policies or laws according to their religious doctrines or values.^[30]

Religious intolerance

Nigeria has witnessed many cases of religious intolerance and violence among its various religious groups over the years.^[31] According to a report by the International Society for Civil Liberties and Rule of Law, over 50,000 Christians have been killed by Islamist extremists in Nigeria since 2009.^[32]^[33] The report also states that more than 100,000 Christians have been displaced and over 1,000 churches have been destroyed or closed down.^[32]^[34] Some of the perpetrators of these attacks include the militant Islamist group Boko Haram, which aims to establish an Islamic state in Nigeria, and the Fulani herdsmen, who often clash with Christian farmers over land and resources.^[35]

On the other hand, Muslims in Nigeria have also faced discrimination and violence from some Christian groups, especially in the southern and central regions of the country.^[36] For example, in June 2022, dozens of worshippers were killed in a Catholic church in Ondo state by a militant group linked to the Islamic State network.^[37]^[38] The attack was believed to be a retaliation for the killing of Muslims by Christian vigilantes in the same state a few days earlier.^[39]^[40] Similarly, in April 2012, gunmen killed at least 15 people in a university theatre being used by Christian worshippers in the northern city of Kano.^[41]^[42] The attack was claimed by Boko Haram, which accused the Christians of provoking them by holding services on their land.^[42]

The causes of religious intolerance and violence in Nigeria are complex and multifaceted. Some of the factors that contribute to the problem include:

Historical grievances: Some religious groups harbor resentment and mistrust towards other groups based on historical events, such as the colonial era, the civil war, and the Sharia crisis.^[31]
Political manipulation: Some political actors exploit religious sentiments and identities to mobilize support or undermine opponents, often along ethnic and regional lines.^[43]
Economic inequality: Some religious groups feel marginalized or oppressed by the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities in the country, especially between the north and the south.^[44]
Social exclusion: Some religious groups face discrimination or harassment in accessing education, health care, employment, or justice, especially in areas where they are minorities or where there is a dominant religion.^[44]
Religious extremism: Some religious groups adopt radical or violent interpretations of their faith and seek to impose them on others, often through coercion or force.^[44]

Secularism and democracy

Secularism is a legal position in the supreme law of Nigeria, stating that religious belief should not influence any public or governmental decisions.^[3] In other words, secularism is a documented position in a Constitution relating to political belief in the separation of religion and state.^[1] Secularism in Nigeria aims to ensure and protect the religious diversity and freedom of all citizens, regardless of their faith or belief.^[1]

However, secularism in Nigeria faces many challenges from various sources and factors, such as:

Constitutional ambiguity: The Nigerian Constitution contains contradictory provisions on secularism and religion.^[45] On one hand, it declares that Nigeria is a secular state and that no government or state shall adopt any religion as state religion. On the other hand, it recognizes Sharia courts of appeal for Islamic personal law matters and allows states to establish their own Sharia courts.^[20] It also requires that every political party must reflect the federal character of Nigeria in its membership and leadership, which implies some consideration of religious representation.^[24]
Religious pressure: Some religious groups demand more recognition or accommodation from the state than others. For example, some Muslim groups advocate for the implementation of Sharia law in all aspects of life, not just personal law.^[46] Some Christian groups oppose this and call for more protection from Islamic extremism.^[47]
Democratic deficit: Some political institutions and processes in Nigeria are not conducive to democratic governance or secularism.^[48] For example, there is a lack of transparency and accountability in public affairs, a high level of corruption and nepotism, a weak rule of law and human rights protection, a low level of civic education and participation, and a high level of electoral fraud and violence.^[49]

The relationship between secularism and democracy in Nigeria is complex and dynamic.^[50] Some studies suggest that there is no inherent contradiction between Islam or Christianity and democracy, and that Nigerians across different religions support democratic values and principles.^[51] However, some studies also indicate that there are significant differences among Nigerians regarding their attitudes towards secularism, democracy, human rights, gender equality, tolerance, trust, civic engagement, etc., depending on their religious affiliation.^[52]

Related Research Articles

The federal government of Nigeria is composed of three distinct branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial, whose powers are vested and bestowed upon by the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. One of the primary functions of the constitution is that it provides for separation and balance of powers among the three branches and aims to prevent the repetition of past mistakes made by the government. Other functions of the constitution include a division of power between the federal government and the states, and protection of various individual liberties of the nation's citizens.

Sharia,Sharī'ah, Shari'a, Shariah or Syariah is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to Allah's immutable divine law and this is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its interpretations by Islamic scholars. Fiqh, practical application side of sharia in a sense, was elaborated over the centuries by legal opinions issued by qualified jurists and sharia has never been the sole valid legal system in Islam historically; it has always been used alongside customary law from the beginning, and applied in courts by ruler-appointed judges, integrated with various economic, criminal and administrative laws issued by Muslim rulers.

Islamic fundamentalism has been defined as a revivalist and reform movement of Muslims who aim to return to the founding scriptures of Islam. The term has been used interchangeably with similar terms such as Islamism, Islamic revivalism, Qutbism, Islamic activism, but also criticized as pejorative, a term used by outsiders who instead ought to be using more positive terms such as Islamic activism or Islamic revivalism.

The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is practiced. In a modern geopolitical sense, these terms refer to countries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion. The term Muslim-majority countries is an alternative often used for the latter sense.

The term pseudo-secularism is used to describe individuals who claim to be secular but may display biases towards a particular religion, whether consciously or unconsciously. This term has gained popularity in recent Indian politics, where it is often used to criticize individuals who identify as secular and advocate for minority rights while remaining silent or opposing concerns faced by the majority religion. Some Hindu nationalist parties employ this term as a counter-accusation against their critics, alleging that the secularism followed by the Indian National Congress and other self-declared secular parties are flawed or distorted.

Islam is one of the two largest religions in Nigeria. Nigeria also has the largest Muslim population in Africa. In 2018, the CIA World Factbook estimated that 53.5% of Nigeria's population is Muslim. Islam is predominantly concentrated in the northern half of the country, with a significant Muslim minority existing in the southern region. Most of Northern Nigeria is governed under Sharia law, while the rest of the country is governed under secular law.

There exist a number of perspectives on the relationship of Islam and democracy among Islamic political theorists, the general Muslim public, and Western authors.

Islam is the second largest religion in Ethiopia behind Christianity, with 31.1 to 35 percent of the total population of around 120 million people professing the religion as of 2024.

India since its independence in 1947 has been a secular state. The secular values were enshrined in the constitution of India. India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru is credited with the formation of the secular republic in the modern history of the country. With the Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India enacted in 1976, the Preamble to the Constitution asserted that India is a secular nation. However, the Supreme Court of India in the 1994 case S. R. Bommai v. Union of India established the fact that India was secular since the formation of the republic. The judgement established that there is separation of state and religion. It stated "In matters of State, religion has no place. Any State government which pursues nonsecular on policies or nonsecular course of action acts contrary to the constitutional mandate and renders itself amenable to action under Article 356". Furthermore, constitutionally, state-owned educational institutions are prohibited from imparting religious instructions, and Article 27 of the constitution prohibits using tax-payers money for the promotion of any religion.

Christianity and Islam are the two main religions practiced in Nigeria The country is home to some of the world's largest Christian and Muslim populations, simultaneously. Reliable recent statistics do not exist; however, Nigeria is divided roughly in half between Muslims, who live mostly in the northern region, and Christians, who live mostly in the southern region of the country. Indigenous religions, such as those native to the Igbo and Yoruba ethnicities, have been declining for decades and being replaced by Christianity or Islam. The Christian share of Nigeria's population is also now on the decline, due to a lower fertility rate relative to the Muslim population in the country.

In Turkey, secularism or laicism was first introduced with the 1928 amendment of the Constitution of 1924, which removed the provision declaring that the "Religion of the State is Islam", and with the later reforms of Turkey's first president Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, which set the administrative and political requirements to create a modern, democratic, secular state, aligned with Kemalism.

Secularism—that is, the separation of religion from civic affairs and the state—has been a controversial concept in Islamic political thought, owing in part to historical factors and in part to the ambiguity of the concept itself. In the Muslim world, the notion has acquired strong negative connotations due to its association with removal of Islamic influences from the legal and political spheres under foreign colonial domination, as well as attempts to restrict public religious expression by some secularist nation states. Thus, secularism has often been perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites, and is frequently understood to be equivalent to irreligion or anti-religion.

The predominant religion in Somalia is Islam, with tiny minorities of Christians, traditional African religions and others.

Sharia means Islamic law based on Islamic concepts based from Quran and Hadith. Since the early Islamic states of the eighth and ninth centuries, Sharia always existed alongside other normative systems.

Capital punishment for offenses is allowed by law in some countries. Such offenses include adultery, apostasy, blasphemy, corruption, drug trafficking, espionage, fraud, homosexuality and sodomy, perjury causing execution of an innocent person, prostitution, sorcery and witchcraft, theft, and treason.

Freedom of religion in Somalia refers to the extent to which people in Somalia are freely able to practice their religious beliefs, taking into account government policies, non-state actors, and societal attitudes toward religious groups. Due to the Somali Civil War, the enforcement of laws pertaining to religion by the various autonomous governments in the region is inconsistent.

Freedom of religion in Tanzania refers to the extent to which people in Tanzania are freely able to practice their religious beliefs, taking into account both government policies and societal attitudes toward religious groups.

The status of religious freedom in Africa varies from country to country. States can differ based on whether or not they guarantee equal treatment under law for followers of different religions, whether they establish a state religion, the extent to which religious organizations operating within the country are policed, and the extent to which religious law is used as a basis for the country's legal code.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chrislam</span> Assemblage of Islamic and Christian religious practices in Nigeria

Chrislam refers to a Christian expression of Islam, originating as an assemblage of Islamic and Christian religious practices in Nigeria; in particular, the series of religious movements that merged Muslim and Christian religious practice during the 1970s in Lagos, Nigeria. The movement was pioneered by the Yoruba people in south-west Nigeria. Chrislam works against the conventional understanding of Islam and Christianity as two separate and exclusive religions, seeking out commonalities between both religions and promoting an inclusive union of the two. Chrislam also occupies a distinct geographical space; Nigeria is often understood to be geographically and religiously polarized, with a predominantly Muslim North, and a predominantly Christian South.

Secularism in the Philippines concerns the relationship of the Philippine government with religion. Officially the Philippines is a secular state, but religious institutions and religion play a significant role in the country's political affairs. Legal pluralism also persist with the application of Islamic personal laws for the country's Muslim population.

References

Citations

1 2 3 4 Ogbu 2014, pp. 135–178.
1 2 Okolie & Osayande 2021, pp. 65–89.
1 2 3 4 5 Yesufu 2016, p. 38.
1 2 "Colonialism, Independence, Civil War". Encyclopedia Britannica. 26 July 1999. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Oladiti, Abiodun Akeem (13 November 2007). "RELIGION AND POLITICS IN PRE-COLONIAL NIGERIA". ProQuest: 72–84. ProQuest 1614299342 . Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Pew Research Center 2010, p. 33.
↑ "Islam in Nigeria". Religion and Public Life at Harvard Divinity School. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Simwa, Adrianna (15 January 2018). "How did ♱Christianity♱ come to Nigeria?". Legit.ng . Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ "Traditional African religions and their influences on the worldviews of Bangwa people of Cameroon: Expanding the cultural horizons of study abroad students and professionals" (PDF). Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Oguntola-Laguda 2014, pp. 26–31.
↑ Shitu 2020, pp. 9–29.
1 2 Abar 2019.
1 2 3 Linden 2016, pp. 95–138.
1 2 Isiani & Obi-Ani 2019, pp. 145–158.
↑ "England's Indirect Rule in Its African Colonies". Home. 1 July 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
1 2 3 Cambridge University Press 2008, pp. 136–157.
1 2 3 Asadu, Chinedu (1 October 2020). "Nigeria is 60: Here are those whose labour led to independence". TheCable. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
1 2 "Independence Day: How Nigeria gain independence". BBC News Pidgin. 30 September 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
1 2 3 Areas, Substantive (11 November 2020). "CONSTITUTION OF NIGERIA [1960, 1963, 1979, 1999 WITH ALL AMENDMENTS AND ALTERATIONS)". Constitution – Law Nigeria. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
1 2 Oba 2004, pp. 859–900.
1 2 3 "CONSTITUTION OF THE FEDERATION (1963 No.20)" (PDF). Retrieved 27 October 2023.
1 2 3 4 5 Akpan 1980, pp. 23–41.
1 2 3 Odinkalu 2001, pp. 57–99.
1 2 3 Demarest, Langer & Ukiwo 2020, pp. 315–328.
1 2 3 "Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999" (PDF). Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Ogowewo 2000, pp. 135–166.
↑ "The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations". Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Dowd 2014, pp. 617–644.
↑ "CIFORB Country Profile – Nigeria" (PDF). Retrieved 27 October 2023.
1 2 3 Yesufu 2016, p. 1.
1 2 Sulaiman 1990, pp. 85–103.
1 2 Zengarini, Lisa (17 April 2023). "Over 50,000 Christians killed in Nigeria by Islamist extremists". Vatican News. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Salau, Seyi John (20 April 2023). "Over 50000 Christians killed in Nigeria by Islamist extremists". Business Day (Nigeria) . Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ "Thousand Churches Destroyed in Nigeria". OrthoChristian.Com. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Ogbondah & Agbese 2018, pp. 313–345.
↑ Campbell, John (1 May 2019). "Conflict in Nigeria Is More Complicated Than "Christians vs. Muslims"". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ "Nigeria Owo church attack: Gunmen kill Catholic worshippers in Ondo". BBC News. 5 June 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Ugo, Chima (9 August 2022). "Owo massacre: Rotimi Akeredolu confirms arrest of five suspects". Prime 9ja Online . Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Adetayo, Ope (9 June 2022). "ISWAP blamed for church massacre in Nigeria". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ "Nigeria links church attack in Ondo state to ISWAP terror group". Anadolu Ajansı. 10 June 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ "Deadly attack on Nigeria's Bayero university in Kano". Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack. 30 April 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
1 2 "20 killed at Bayero University church services attack". Vanguard News. 29 April 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ "Religion and Conflict in Nigeria" (PDF). Retrieved 27 October 2023.
1 2 3 Sampson 2012, pp. 103–134.
↑ "A review of the secularity of the Nigerian 1999 constitution". TheCable. 30 September 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ U.N.human rights bodies. 2004.
↑ Robinson, Kali (25 April 2005). "Understanding Sharia: The Intersection of Islam and the Law". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Buckley 2015, pp. 439–458.
↑ Vo, Steven (12 April 2021). "The Failure of Governance in Nigeria: An Epistocratic Challenge". Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
↑ Enweh 2019, p. 89.
↑ Pereira & Ibrahim 2010, pp. 921–937.
↑ "Nigeria". United States Department of State. 2 June 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2023.

Bibliography

Pew Research Center (2010). Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa (PDF) (Report) (PDF). Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2023-10-24.
Ogbu, Osita Nnamani (1 January 2014). "Is Nigeria a Secular State? Law, Human Rights and Religion in Context". The Transnational Human Rights Review. 1 (1). Osgoode Hall Law School, York University: 135–178. doi: 10.60082/2563-4631.1003 . ISSN 2563-4631. S2CID 150965911.
Okolie, Ugo Chuks; Osayande, Festus (2021). "Secularism and National in Nigeria's Fourth Republic: an Empirical Study". Humanities and Social Sciences: Latvia. 29 (2). University of Latvia: 65–89. doi: 10.22364/hssl.29.2.05 . ISSN 1022-4483. S2CID 245174941.
Yesufu, Momoh Lawani (2016). "The impact of religion on a secular state: the Nigerian experience". Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae (SHE). 42 (1). UNISA Press. doi: 10.17159/2412-4265/2016/255 . ISSN 2412-4265.
Oguntola-Laguda, Danoye (2014). "African Traditional Religion". Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion. Boston, MA: Springer US. pp. 26–31. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_9120. ISBN 978-1-4614-6085-5. S2CID 226453437.
Shitu, Mujahid (15 August 2020). "An appraisal of 'dialogue of the truth' and inter-religious dialogue in Nigeria : a Muslim view-point". African Journal of Religion, Philosophy and Culture. 1 (1). Adonis and Abbey Publishers: 9–29. doi:10.31920/2634-7644/2020/v1n1a1. ISSN 2634-7636. S2CID 225369161.
Abar, Emmanuel (2019). Islam, Christianity, Traditional Religions and Power Politics in Northern Nigeria Since Pre-Islamic Period (Thesis). James White Library. doi: 10.32597/dissertations/1678 .
Linden, Mieke van der (25 September 2016). "Chapter 5: British Nigeria". The Acquisition of Africa (1870-1914). Brill Nijhoff. pp. 95–138. doi:10.1163/9789004321199_006. ISBN 9789004321199 . Retrieved 27 October 2023.
Isiani, Mathias Chukwudi; Obi-Ani, Ngozika Anthonia (30 October 2019). "AMALGAMATION OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN PROTECTORATES OF NIGERIA: BLESSING OR CURSE?". ResearchGate. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
"Nationalist movements and independence, 1929 – 1960". A History of Nigeria. Cambridge University Press. 24 April 2008. pp. 136–157. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511819711.010. ISBN 9780521862943.
Oba, Abdulmumini Adebayo (2004). "The Sharia Court of Appeal in Northern Nigeria: The Continuing Crises of Jurisdiction". The American Journal of Comparative Law. 52 (4). American Society of Comparative Law: 859–900. doi:10.2307/4144468. ISSN 0002-919X. JSTOR 4144468 . Retrieved 27 October 2023.
Akpan, Moses E. (1980). "The 1979 Nigerian Constitution and Human Rights". Universal Human Rights. 2 (2). Johns Hopkins University Press: 23–41. doi:10.2307/761809. ISSN 0163-2647. JSTOR 761809 . Retrieved 27 October 2023.
Odinkalu, Chidi A. (2001). "The Management of Transition to Civil Rule by the Military in Nigeria (1966-1996)". Nigeria during the Abacha Years (1993-1998). IFRA-Nigeria. pp. 57–99. doi:10.4000/books.ifra.634. ISBN 9789788025009.
Demarest, Leila; Langer, Arnim; Ukiwo, Ukoha (16 February 2020). "Nigeria's Federal Character Commission (FCC): a critical appraisal". Oxford Development Studies. 48 (4). Informa UK Limited: 315–328. doi: 10.1080/13600818.2020.1727427 . hdl: 1887/138558 . ISSN 1360-0818. S2CID 214449593.
Ogowewo, Tunde I. (2000). "Why the Judicial Annulment of the Constitution of 1999 Is Imperative for the Survival of Nigeria's Democracy". Journal of African Law. 44 (2). Cambridge University Press: 135–166. doi:10.1017/S0021855300012195. ISSN 0021-8553. JSTOR 1587454. S2CID 145120828 . Retrieved 27 October 2023.
Dowd, Robert A. (23 September 2014). "Religious Diversity and Religious Tolerance". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 60 (4). SAGE Publications: 617–644. doi:10.1177/0022002714550085. ISSN 0022-0027. S2CID 144786850.
Sulaiman, Kamal-deen Olawale (6 January 1990). "Religious Violence in Contemporary Nigeria: Implications and Options for Peace and Stability Order". Journal for the Study of Religion. 29 (1): 85–103. ISSN 1011-7601 . Retrieved 27 October 2023.
Ogbondah, Chris Wolumati; Agbese, Pita Ogaba (2018). "Terrorists and Social Media Messages: A Critical Analysis of Boko Haram's Messages and Messaging Techniques". The Palgrave Handbook of Media and Communication Research in Africa. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 313–345. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70443-2_18. ISBN 978-3-319-70442-5. S2CID 158309183.
Sampson, IT (10 July 2012). "Religious violence in Nigeria: Causal diagnoses and strategic recommendations to the state and religious communities". African Journal on Conflict Resolution. 12 (1): 103–134. ISSN 1562-6997 . Retrieved 27 October 2023.
U.N.human rights bodies. (21 September 2004). ""Political Shari'a"?". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
Buckley, David T. (2015). "Beyond the Secularism Trap: Religion, Political Institutions, and Democratic Commitments". Comparative Politics. 47 (4). Comparative Politics, Ph.D. Programs in Political Science, City University of New York: 439–458. doi:10.5129/001041515816103257. ISSN 0010-4159. JSTOR 43664159 . Retrieved 27 October 2023.
Enweh, Innocent Ikechukwu (1 July 2019). "Secularism and guided democracy". OGIRISI: A New Journal of African Studies. 14 (1). African Journals Online (AJOL): 89. doi: 10.4314/og.v14i1.5 . ISSN 1597-474X. S2CID 198768143.
Pereira, Charmaine; Ibrahim, Jibrin (2010). "On the Bodies of Women: the common ground between Islam and Christianity in Nigeria". Third World Quarterly. 31 (6). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 921–937. doi:10.1080/01436597.2010.502725. ISSN 0143-6597. JSTOR 27896589. PMID 20857569. S2CID 205477929 . Retrieved 27 October 2023.