Yu the Great or Yu the Engineer was a legendary king in ancient China who was credited with "the first successful state efforts at flood control",[1] his establishment of the Xia dynasty, which inaugurated dynastic rule in China, and for his upright moral character.[2][3] He figures prominently in the Chinese legend titled "Great Yu Controls the Waters" (大禹治水; Dà Yǔ zhì shuǐ). Yu and other sage-kings of ancient China were lauded for their virtues and morals by Confucius and other Chinese teachers.[4] He is one of the few Chinese monarchs who is posthumously honored with the epithet "the Great".
There is no contemporary evidence of Yu's existence as traditionally attested in the Shiji. Yu is said to have ruled as sage-king during the late 3rd millenniumBC, which predates the oracle bone script used during the late Shang dynasty—the oldest known form of writing in China—by nearly a millennium.[5] Yu's name was not inscribed on any artifacts which were produced during the proposed era in which he lived, nor was it inscribed on the later oracle bones; his name was first inscribed on vessels which date to the Western Zhou period (c.1045–771BC).
Name
The Shuowen Jiezi (c.121AD) gives the earliest definition of yu禹 under the ⽱'TRACK' radical: 'bug', 'reptile'; a pictograph.[6]
Transmitted sources uniformly asserted that Yu was the son of Gun, a kind of mythical fish,[9] though they differed on Gun's origins. According to Sima Qian's Shiji (c.90BC), Yu's father was Gun, grandfather was Zhuanxu, great-grandfather was Changyi, and great-great-grandfather was the Yellow Emperor, Changyi and Gun being mere officials, not emperors.[10][11][12][13] The Book of Han, quoting Lord Yu Imperial Lineage, stated that Yu's father Gun was a five-generation-descendant of Zhuanxu.[14] The Classic of Mountains and Seas stated that Yu's father Gun (also known as 白馬; 'White Horse') was the son of Luoming, who in turn was the son of the Yellow Emperor.[15]
Yu's father, Gun, was enfeoffed at Shiniu of Mount Wen (汶山), in modern-day Beichuan County, Sichuan, Yu was said to have been potentially born there,[16] though there are debates as to whether he was born instead in Shifang.[17] Yu's mother was of the Youxin (有莘氏) clan, named either Nüzhi (女志) or Nüxi (女嬉). His surname was Si, later Xia after the state he was enfeoffed with, while his personal name was Wenming (文命), according to the Shiji.[18][19][20]
When Yu was a child, Emperor Yao enfeoffed Gun as lord of Chong, usually identified as the middle peak of Mount Song. Yu is thus believed to have grown up on the slopes of Mount Song, just south of the Yellow River.[21] Yu was described as a credulous, hard working, quick witted person with morals.[22] He later married a woman from Mount Tu (塗山) who is generally referred to as Tushanshi (塗山氏; 'Lady Tushan').[23] They had a son named Qi, a name literally meaning "revelation".[23]
A separate legend of Yu's birth is attested in an excavated manuscript, the provenance of which is provisionally assigned to the Warring States period. In this legend, Yu's mother became pregnant after consuming the grains of a Job's tears plant, and gave birth to him through her back after a three-year gestation period.[24]
Yu as depicted in the album Portraits of Famous Menc.1900, housed in the Philadelphia Museum of Art
During the reign of Emperor Yao, the Chinese heartland was frequently plagued by floods that prevented further economic and social development.[25] Yu's father, Gun, was tasked with devising a system to control the flooding. He spent more than nine years building a series of dikes and dams along the riverbanks, but all of this was ineffective, despite (or because of) the great number and size of these dikes and the use of a special self-expanding soil. As an adult, Yu continued his father's work and made a careful study of the river systems in an attempt to learn why his father's great efforts had failed.
Collaborating with Hou Ji, a semi-mythical agricultural master, Yu successfully devised a system of flood controls that were crucial in establishing the prosperity of the Chinese heartland. Instead of directly damming the rivers' flow, Yu made a system of irrigation canals which relieved floodwater into fields, as well as spending great effort dredging the riverbeds.[12] Yu is said to have eaten and slept with the common workers and spent most of his time personally assisting the work of dredging the silty beds of the rivers for the thirteen years the projects took to complete. The dredging and irrigation were successful, and allowed ancient Chinese culture to flourish along the Yellow River, Wei River, and other waterways of the Chinese heartland. The project earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, and is referred to in Chinese history as "Great Yu Controls the Waters" (大禹治水; Dà Yǔ zhì shuǐ). In particular, Mount Longmen along the Yellow River had a very narrow channel which blocked water from flowing freely east toward the ocean. Yu is said to have brought a large number of workers to open up this channel, which has been known ever since as "Yu's Gateway" (禹門口).[12]
In a retold version of this story as presented in Wang Jia's Shi Yi Ji (4th century AD), Yu is assisted in his work by a yellow dragon and a black turtle (not necessarily related to the Black Tortoise in Chinese mythology).[26] Another local myth says that Yu created the Sanmenxia in the Yellow River by cutting a mountain ridge with a divine battle-axe to control flooding. This is perhaps a reference to a meteorite stone—something hard enough to etch away at the hard bedrock of Mount Longmen.[citation needed]
Traditional stories say that Yu sacrificed a great deal of his body to control the floods. For example, his hands were said to be thickly calloused, and his feet were completely covered with calluses. In one common story, Yu had only been married four days when he was given the task of fighting the flood. He said goodbye to his wife, saying that he did not know when he would return. During the thirteen years of flooding, he passed by his own family's doorstep three times, but each time he did not return inside his own home. The first time he passed, he heard that his wife was in labor. The second time he passed by, his son could already call out to his father. His family urged him to return home, but he said it was impossible as the flood was still going on. The third time Yu was passing by, his son was more than ten years old. Each time, Yu refused to go in the door, saying that as the flood was rendering countless number of people homeless, he could not rest.[23][27]
Yu supposedly killed Gonggong's minister Xiangliu, a nine-headed snake monster.
Map showing the Nine provinces defined by Yu the Great during the legendary flood
Emperor Shun, who reigned after Yao, was so impressed by Yu's engineering work and diligence that he passed the throne to Yu instead of to his own son. Yu is said to have initially declined the throne, but was so popular with other local lords and chiefs that he agreed to become the new emperor, at age 53. He established a capital at Anyi (安邑), the ruins of which are in modern Xia County in southern Shanxi and founded what would be called the Xia, traditionally considered China's first dynasty.[28]
According to the Rites of Zhou, there was no Xuzhou or Liangzhou, instead there were Youzhou and Bingzhou, but according to the Erya there was no Qingzhou or Liangzhou, instead there was Youzhou (幽州) and Yingzhou (營州).[29] Either way there were nine divisions. Once he had received bronze from these nine territories, he created ding vessels called the Nine Tripod Cauldrons.[30] Yu then established his capital at Yang (陽城, modern Dengfeng).[31] It is said in the Book of Documents that the Miao people rebelled under their leader, but he treated them harshly and so many abandoned him. He fought with Yu, who had the intention to kill him, but after defeating him spared him and reformed him for 3 years. He became wise and ruled well and the people returned.[32] The Bamboo Annals claim Yu killed Fangfeng, one of the northern leaders, to reinforce his hold on the throne.[33][34]
Mausoleum
Mausoleum for Yu the Great in Shaoxing, Zhejiang
Mausoleum stele
Temple grounds
According to the Bamboo Annals, Yu ruled the Xia Dynasty for forty-five years and, according to Yue Jueshu (越絕書), he died from an illness.[34][35] It is said that he died at Mount Kuaiji, south of present-day Shaoxing, while on a hunting tour to the eastern frontier of his empire, and was buried there. The Yu Mausoleum (大禹陵) known today was first built in the Northern and Southern period (6th century) in his honor.[36] It is located four kilometers southeast of Shaoxing city.[36] Most of the structure was rebuilt many times in later periods. The three main parts of the mausoleum are the tomb, temple, and memorial of Yu.[37] Sima Qian once "went to Kuaiji and explored the cave of Yu". The tomb faces east and west and has a grate gate, a canal and a pavilion for the Great Yu Tomb.[38] In many statues he is seen carrying a hoe. A number of emperors in imperial times traveled there to perform ceremonies in his honor, notably Qin Shi Huang.[35]
Historicity
There is no evidence suggesting the existence of Yu as a historical figure until several centuries after the invention of writing in China, during the Western Zhou dynasty—nearly a millennium after the traditional dating of his reign. What was eventually recorded in historiography consists of myth and legend. No inscriptions on artifacts dated to the supposed era of Yu, or the later oracle bones, contain any mention of him. The first archeological evidence of Yu comes from vessels made about a thousand years after his supposed death.[39]
During the early 20th century, the Doubting Antiquity School of historiography theorized that Yu was not a person in the earliest legends, but rather a god or mythical beast who was connected with water, and possibly with the mythical Dragon Kings and their control over water. According to this theory, Yu was represented on ceremonial bronzes by the early Xia people, and by the beginning of the Zhou dynasty, the legendary figure had morphed into the first man, who could control water, and it was only during the Zhou Dynasty that the legendary figures that now precede Yu were added to the orthodox legendary lineage. According to the Chinese legend Yu the Great was a man-god.[citation needed]
Archaeological evidence of a large outburst flood at Jishi Gorge on the Yellow River has been dated c.1920BC. This coincides with new cultures all along the Yellow River. The water control problems after the initial flooding could plausibly have lasted for some twenty years. Wu and coauthors suggest that this supports the idea that the stories of Yu the Great may have originated from a historical person.[40][dubious–discuss]
His personal name is written identically to a Chinese surname, a simplification of the minor polity of Yu (鄅國) in present-day Shandong. Its people carried this lineage name forward after Yu was conquered by the state of Lu during the Spring and Autumn period.[citation needed]
The Xia dynasty is the first dynasty in traditional Chinese historiography. According to tradition, it was established by the legendary figure Yu the Great, after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors, gave the throne to him. In traditional historiography, the Xia was succeeded by the Shang dynasty.
Emperor Gaozu of Han, also known by his given name Liu Bang, was the founder and first emperor of the Han dynasty, reigning from 202 to 195 BC. He is considered by traditional Chinese historiography to be one of the greatest emperors in history, credited with establishing the first Pax Sinica, one of China's longest golden ages.
Emperor Shun was a legendary leader of ancient China, regarded by some sources as one of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors being the last of the Five Emperors. Tradition holds that he lived sometime between 2294 and 2184 BC. Tradition also holds that those with the surname Hu (胡) are descendants of Emperor Shun. The Duke Hu of Chen, 胡公滿, a descendant of Shun, became the founder of the State of Chen. Later Chen dynasty emperors such as Chen Baxian would also claim descent from Shun.
Chen was a state founded by the Duke Hu of Chen during the Zhou dynasty of ancient China. It existed from c. 1045 BC–479 BC. Its capital was Wanqiu, in present-day Huaiyang County in the plains of eastern Henan province. Chen, the 4th most popular Chinese surname in the world, and members of the Hu clan, the 13th most popular Chinese surname in the world, would claim descent from the Duke Hu of Chen who was in turn descended from the legendary Emperor Shun. At its peak, Chen encompassed fourteen cities in modern-day Henan and Anhui.
Zhuanxu, also known as Gaoyang, was a mythological emperor of ancient China.
Shaohao, also known as Jin Tian (金天), was a legendary Chinese sovereign, usually identified as a son of the Yellow Emperor. According to some traditions, such as that within the Book of Documents, Shaohao is one of the Five Emperors. His place in the mythical lineage of the Yellow Emperor has been subject to controversy. Members of the 19th–20th century Doubting Antiquity School of historians posited that Shaohao was added to the orthodox succession legend by Liu Xin as part of a politically motivated campaign revising ancient texts c. 1 AD.
Huaxia is a historical concept representing the Chinese nation, and came from the self-awareness of a common cultural ancestry by the various confederations of pre-Qin ethnic ancestors of Han people.
Youyu-shi, also called Youyu clan or the Yu dynasty, is a proposed dynasty of China that could have existed prior to the Xia dynasty. The territory controlled by the Yu dynasty is hypothesized to have been located southwest of Pinglu County, in Shanxi Province, China. Its last monarch is believed to be Emperor Shun.
Tao Qian (132–194), courtesy name Gongzu, was a government official and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He is best known for serving as the governor of Xu Province.
Qi was a Chinese king, the son of Yu the Great and the second sovereign of the Xia dynasty. He ruled for roughly nine to ten years.
Guo Wei, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Later Zhou (後周太祖), was the founding emperor of the Chinese Later Zhou dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, reigning from 951 until his death in 954.
Gun, also known as Count of Chong, is a figure in Chinese mythology, sometimes noted as the father of Yu the Great, the founder of the Xia dynasty. Gun was appointed to the task of controlling the Great Flood by Emperor Yao on the advice of the Four Mountains. Gun used dykes to try to stop the flooding but the dykes collapsed, killing many people.
The Nine Tripod Cauldrons were, a collection of ding in ancient China that were viewed as symbols of the authority given to the ruler by the Mandate of Heaven. According to the legend, they were cast by Yu the Great of the Xia dynasty.
The Xunyu is the name of an ancient nomadic tribe which invaded China during legendary times. They are traditionally identified with the Guifang, the Xianyun and the Xiongnu.
Hou Ji was a legendary Chinese culture hero credited with introducing millet to humanity during the time of the Xia dynasty. Millet was the original staple grain of northern China, prior to the introduction of wheat. His name translates as Lord of Millet and was a title granted to him by Emperor Shun, according to Records of the Grand Historian. Houji was credited with developing the philosophy of Agriculturalism and with service during the Great Flood in the reign of Yao; he was also claimed as an ancestor of the Ji clan that became the ruling family of the Zhou dynasty or a founder of the Zhou.
Chunwei is a name associated with the Xiongnu, a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD.
Deng Yang, courtesy name Xuanmao, was an official of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China.
Yubu, translated as Pace(s) of Yu or Step(s) of Yu, is the basic mystic dance step of religious Daoism. This ancient walking or dancing technique typically involves dragging one foot after another, and is explained in reference to the legendary Yu the Great, who became lame on one side of his body from exerting himself while establishing order in the world after the Great Flood. Daoist religions, especially during the Six Dynasties period (220–589), incorporated Yubu into rituals, such as the Bugang 步罡 "pace the Big Dipper", in which a Taoist priest would symbolically walk the nine stars of the Beidou 北斗 "Big Dipper" in order to acquire that constellation's supernatural energy.
Lady Saso is said to be the mother of Hyeokgeose of Silla first introduced in Samguk Yusa. Also known as the Sacred Mother of Mt. Seondo, legends say she was a princess from the Buyeo royal family. She gave birth to Hyeokgeose of Silla. Later, she was honored as great king by King Gyeongmyeong.
The Four Perils are four malevolent beings that exist in Chinese mythology.
↑ Sima Qian's discussionArchived 2021-12-27 at the Wayback Machine on "Annals of Xia" in the Shiji: "禹爲姒姓，其後分封，用國爲姓，故有夏后氏、有扈氏、有男氏、斟尋氏、彤城氏、襃氏、費氏、杞氏、繒氏、辛氏、冥氏、斟戈氏/斟灌氏" translation: "Yu was surnamed Si, he later was enfeoffed [and] used the nation['s appellation] as surname. Thence [we] have the surnames: Xiahou, Youhu, Younan, Zhenxun, Tongcheng, Bao, Fei, Qi, Zeng, Xin, Ming, Zhenge/Zhenguan"
↑ Allan, Sarah (2009). "Not the Lun Yu: The Chu Script Bamboo Slip Manuscript, Zigao, and the Nature of Early Confucianism". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 72 (1). Cambridge University Press: 132–133, 145. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0900007X. JSTOR40378848. S2CID162500383.
↑ Lu, Xing (1998). Rhetoric in ancient China, fifth to third century BCE: a comparison with classical Greek rhetoric. Studies in rhetoric communication. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. pp.46–47. ISBN978-1-57003-216-5.
↑ Lewis, Mark Edward (2006). The flood myths of early China. SUNY series in Chinese philosophy and culture. State University of New York Press. pp.104–105, 191–192. ISBN0-7914-6663-9. (especially, notes 90 and 97). The relevant text is in Shi Yi Ji, Chapter 2: "黃龍曳尾於前，玄龜負青泥於後", etc.
1 2 Ng Saam-sing 吾三省. (2008). Zong-guok Man-faa Bui-ging Bat-cin Ci中國文化背景八千詞. Hong Kong: Seong Mou Jan Syu Gwun商務印書館(香港). ISBN962-07-1846-1, ISBN978-962-07-1846-5. p 37.
↑ Bjaaland Welch, Patricia. [2008] (2008). Chinese art: a guide to motifs and visual imagery. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN0-8048-3864-X, 9780804838641. p 262.
Dai, Yi; Gong Shuduo (龔書鐸) (2003). 中國通史. 史前夏商西周[History of China] (in Chinese) (Illust. studented.). Intelligence Press. ISBN962-8792-80-6.
Sima, Qian; Sima, Tan. 燕召公世家. Records of the Grand Historian史記 (in Literary Chinese) – via Wikisource.
Wang Hengwei (王恆偉) (2006). 遠古至春秋[Ancient times to the Spring and Autumn period]. 中國歷史講堂[Chinese history lectures] (in Chinese). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN962-8885-24-3.
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