Transcriptions | |
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Standard Mandarin | |
Hanyu Pinyin | dǐng |
Wade–Giles | ting3 |
IPA | [tìŋ] |
Yue:Cantonese | |
Yale Romanization | díng |
Jyutping | ding2 |
IPA | [tɪŋ˧˥] |
Southern Min | |
Hokkien POJ | tiáⁿ (col.) téng (lit.) |
Old Chinese | |
Baxter–Sagart (2014) | *tˤengʔ |
Zhengzhang | *kleːŋʔ |
Ding (Chinese :鼎; pinyin :dǐng) are prehistoric and ancient Chinese cauldrons standing upon legs with a lid and two fancy facing handles. They are one of the most important shapes used in Chinese ritual bronzes. They were made in two shapes:round vessels with three legs and rectangular ones with four,the latter often called fāng dǐng (Chinese :方鼎;lit.'square ding'). They were used for cooking,storage,and ritual offerings to the gods or to ancestors.
The earliest recovered examples are pre-Shang ceramic ding at the Erlitou site, [1] but they are better known from the Chinese Bronze Age,particularly after the Zhou deemphasized the ritual use of huangjiu alcohol practiced by the Shang kings. [2] Under the Zhou,the ding and the privilege to perform the associated rituals became symbols of authority. [3] The number of permitted ding varied according to one's rank in the Chinese nobility:the Nine Ding of the Zhou kings were a symbol of their rule over all China but were lost by the first emperor,Shi Huangdi in the late 3rd century BCE. [4] Subsequently,imperial authority was represented by the Heirloom Seal of the Realm,carved out of the sacred Heshibi;it was lost at some point during the Five Dynasties after the collapse of the Tang.
In Chinese history and culture,possession of one or more ancient ding is often associated with power and dominion over the land. Therefore,the ding is often used as an implicit symbolism for power. The term "inquiring of the ding" (Chinese : 問鼎 ; pinyin :wèn dǐng) is often used interchangeably with the quest for power.
In the early Bronze Age of China,the use of wine and food vessels served a religious purpose. While ding were the most important food vessels,wine vessels were the more prominent ritual bronzes of this time,likely due to the belief in Shamanism and spirit worship. [5] Ding were used to make ritual sacrifices,both human and animal,to ancestors. They varied in size,but were generally quite large,indicating that whole animals were likely sacrificed. [6] The sacrifices were meant to appease ancestors due to the Shang belief that spirits had the capability to affect the world of the living. [7] If the ancestors were happy,the living would be blessed with good fortune.
During the early Western Zhou dynasty,the people underwent a political and cultural change. King Wu of Zhou believed that the Shang people were drunkards. He believed that their over-consumption of wine led their king to lose the Mandate of Heaven,thus leading to the downfall of the Shang dynasty. [8] Because of this belief,food vessels (and ding in particular) replaced wine vessels in importance. Bronze vessels underwent what has been called the "Ritual Revolution." [2] This theory suggests that because there was a change in decor as well as the types and variations of vessels found in tombs,their function shifted from solely religious to a more secular one. Instead of sacrificing food to appease ancestors,the Zhou used ding to show off the status of the deceased to both the living and spirits. [7] Ding symbolized status. For example,emperors were buried with nine ding,feudal lords with seven,ministers with five,and scholar-bureaucrats with three or one. [2] The vessels served as symbols of authority for the elite far into the Warring States period. [3]
Like other ritual bronze shapes,the ding was originally an ordinary ceramic cooking,serving and storage vessel,dating back to the Chinese Neolithic,and ceramic dings continued to be used during and after the period when ceremonial bronze versions were made. From the time of the Shang dynasty in the 2nd millennium BCE,dings were also cast in bronze as high-status "ritual bronzes",which were often buried in the tomb of their owners for use in the afterlife. This is the period to which the oldest examples of bronze dings date. Inscriptions found on dings and zhongs are used to study bronzeware script.
The most commonly believed bronze vessel casting process of ancient Chinese vessels is the piece mold process. In this process,a model of the finished vessel,complete with décor,is made of clay and left to harden. Next,a negative of this is made by adding a layer of wet clay to the completed model and allowed to harden to the point where it can still be cut away from it. [9] The model would then be shaved down to form the core,which would eventually become the empty interior of the completed vessel. In the final step,the negative layer was replaced around the core;these were held apart by small bronze and copper pieces called chaplets until the molten bronze could be poured into the opening and fill the empty space between the two layers. When the bronze had cooled,the clay would be broken away from the vessel and the process was complete. [10]
A newer variation on the piece mold process was put forth as a way to explain asymmetrical faces on vessels which,as a rule,should be symmetrical. [11] It was proposed that décor was not made on a model and then transferred to the outer mold layer,but that the décor was carved into and built up on the outer,shell layer as the first step. [11] Décor was added in a variety of ways. The first was by simply carving and incising lines into the clay mold layer. [12] The second was to stamp or press an image,inscription,or design into the wet clay. [13] The third was a technique called tube lining. In this technique,soft,liquid clay would be put into a leather bag and piped onto a surface through some kind of very fine tube made of metal or bone. [14] This technique would have been quite intensive,as it was difficult to maintain constant pressure on the bag,which was needed to create even lines;however,because of certain types of décor,such as thunder or quill patterns,this would have been the most likely technique used to create low relief design in this process.
Several common themes in decoration span across all types of vessel forms,from hu to pan,and guang to jia. Arguably,the most frequent,though also the most intriguing and mysterious[ citation needed ],form of décor is the two eyed motif,often referred to as the taotie. This motif can range from as simple as two protruding half spheres in an otherwise featureless plane to as complex as highly detailed mask-like faces with various animal features such as snouts,fangs and horns. In ding vessels,these taotie faces most often appear on the bowl or cauldron portion of the body,but they can also appear on the legs of the vessels. [15]
Decoration also tends to be used to fill in the background of most vessels,sometimes across the entire body of a vessel,but in other instances only a single band of décor is used. In these backgrounds,a whirl or thunder pattern,a low relief spiral design,is used to fill the space and create a texture across the surface of the vessel. [16]
In later centuries,fully formed three-dimensional animal figures,such as cows,goats,birds,dragons,and lions,were occasionally included on bronze vessels. [17] Some of these animals were purely decorative,while others also had a functional purpose. In one example,the lid of a Li Ding has three lions lying in relaxed positions,holding rings in their mouths;these rings could have been used to lift the lid off of the vessel when it was hot. [18]
A final type of decoration,used in most types of vessels,is the inscription. Inscriptions could be used to identify owner and function;they could be poems or even stories. In one example,the Shi Wang Ding,the inscription is used to tell the story of why the ding was created,as well as make a wish for the lineage of the family who owned it. The Grand Captain's young son Captain Wang says:"Illustriously august deceased-father Duke Jiu was beautifully capable of making accordant his heart and making wise his virtue,with which he served the past kings,and gained purity without flaw. Wang for the first time has gone on to emulate his august deceased-father,respectfully morning and night taking out and bringing in the king's commands,not daring not to follow through or to manage. Because of this,the king has not forgotten the sagely man's descendant,and has greatly praised his accomplishments and awarded him beneficence. Wang dares in response to extol the Son of Heaven's illustriously fine beneficence,herewith making for my august deceased-father Duke Jiu this offertory caldron;may Captain Wang for ten thousand years have sons' sons and grandsons' grandsons eternally to treasure and use it." [19]
One of the many types of bronze vessels,the ding vessel had its origins in standard ceramic vessels with the shape of a tripod. [20] A bronze ding vessel from Panlongcheng,Huangpi,Hubei,for example,inherits its shape from Neolithic pottery. [21] Perhaps the most famous ancient dings were the legendary Nine Tripod Cauldrons. This set of bronze vessels is said to have been cast by King Yu of the Xia dynasty when he divided his territory into the Jiuzhou or Nine Provinces. [22] [23] Later on,possession of all nine was considered a sign of rightful authority over all. [24] The whereabouts of the nine dings are presently unknown,but they are said to have been lost during the imperial Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE),having been passed through various royal dynasties and feudal states. [4]
Ding vessels were used throughout the Shang and Zhou dynasties and later time periods. [25] Round,tripod ding vessels are emblematic of the Shang and Western and Eastern Zhou periods. [26] Western Zhou ding vessels departed from the Shang aesthetic in terms of their oddly-proportioned legs that were deliberately emphasized through the addition of flanged taotie motifs. [27] In terms of their significance throughout history,bronze vessels came to assume a more political role in later dynasties than in the Shang period. [28] Inscriptions cast on Western Zhou ding vessels,for example,commemorate political events and record gifts between monarchs and subjects. [28] The Da Ke ding records a royal award to Ke of royal estate,which is seen as evidence of the breaking up of the estates of old families and their distribution to new families in the transition between different time periods. [29]
In Late Western Zhou,sets of ding and gui were used to indicate rank;a feudal lord would be entitled to nine ding and six gui,while lesser officials were entitled to a smaller number of vessels. [30] Likewise,late Zhou bronzes were often very large,suggesting corresponding wealth. [31] Early Eastern Zhou bronzes descended directly from those of Western Zhou. [32] In later times,in the middle Warring States period,the three-legged ding would be one of the most popular ceramic forms imitating bronzes. [33]
In western China in an area controlled by Qin,small,shallow tripod ding vessels were produced. [34] For these vessels,groups of ceramic and bronze vessels buried together reveal that Western Zhou vessel types continued to exist over different time periods. [34] Tombs at Baoji and Hu Xian,for example,contain sets of ding among others that are shallow and have cabriole legs. [34] The role of ding vessels in the Zhou period continued,as Qin cemeteries contained ding vessels that expressed rank. [35]
Food vessels such as the fu (簠),gui (簋),and dui (敦) that were popular in the Zhou era disappeared by the Han dynasty,during which the ding,zhong (钟),hu (壶),and fang were the main vessel types used. [36] In Western and Eastern Han,the ding was one of the most common bronze-derived shapes in pottery. [37]
Today,the architecture of the Shanghai Museum is intended to resemble a bronze ding.
The Zhou dynasty was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from c. 1046 BC until 256 BC,the longest of all dynasties in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period,the royal house,surnamed Ji,had military control over ancient China. Even as Zhou suzerainty became increasingly ceremonial over the following Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BC),the political system created by the Zhou royal house survived in some form for several additional centuries. A date of 1046 BC for the Zhou's establishment is supported by the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project and David Pankenier,but David Nivison and Edward L. Shaughnessy date the establishment to 1045 BC.
The Shang dynasty,also known as the Yin dynasty,was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley during the second millennium BC,traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Western Zhou dynasty. The classic account of the Shang comes from texts such as the Book of Documents,Bamboo Annals and Shiji. Modern scholarship dates the dynasty between the 16th and 11th centuries BC,with more agreement surrounding the end date than beginning date.
The Western Zhou was a period of Chinese history corresponding roughly to the first half of the Zhou dynasty. It began when King Wu of Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty at the Battle of Muye and ended in 771 BC when Quanrong pastoralists sacked the Zhou capital at Haojing and killed King You of Zhou. The "Western" label for the period refers to the location of the Zhou royal capitals,which were clustered in the Wei River valley near present-day Xi'an.
Yinxu is a Chinese archeological site corresponding to Yin,the final capital of the Shang dynasty. Located in present-day Anyang,Henan,Yin served as the capital during the Late Shang period which spanned the reigns of 12 Shang kings and saw the emergence of oracle bone script,the earliest known Chinese writing. Along with oracle bone script and other material evidence for the Shang's existence,the site was forgotten for millennia. Its rediscovery in 1899 resulted from an investigation into oracle bones that were discovered being sold nearby. The rediscovery of Yinxu marked the beginning of decades of intensive excavation and study. It is one of China's oldest and largest archeological sites,and was selected by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 2006. Yinxu is located in northern Henan,near modern Anyang and the borders Henan shares with Hebei and Shanxi. Public access to the site is permitted.
Chinese bronze inscriptions,also referred to as bronze script or bronzeware script,comprise Chinese writing made in several styles on ritual bronzes mainly during the Late Shang dynasty and Western Zhou dynasty. Types of bronzes include zhong bells and ding tripodal cauldrons. Early inscriptions were almost always made with a stylus into a clay mold,from which the bronze itself was then cast. Additional inscriptions were often later engraved onto bronzes after casting. The bronze inscriptions are one of the earliest scripts in the Chinese family of scripts,preceded by the oracle bone script.
The zun or yi,used until the Northern Song (960–1126) is a type of Chinese ritual bronze or ceramic wine vessel with a round or square vase-like form,sometimes in the shape of an animal,first appearing in the Shang dynasty. Used in religious ceremonies to hold wine,the zun has a wide lip to facilitate pouring. Vessels have been found in the shape of a dragon,an ox,a goose,and more. One notable zun is the He zun from the Western Zhou.
Fu Hao died c. 1200 BC,posthumous temple name Mu Xin (母辛),was one of the many wives of King Wu Ding of the Shang dynasty and also served as a military general and high priestess. Minimal evidence detailing Fu Hao's life and military achievements survived the Shang dynasty,and the records may have perished over the course of time.
A guang or gong is a particular shape used in Chinese art for vessels,originally made as Chinese ritual bronzes in the Shang dynasty,and sometimes later in Chinese porcelain. They are a type of ewer which was used for pouring rice wine at ritual banquets,and often deposited as grave goods in high-status burial. Examples of the shape may be described as ewers,ritual wine vessels,wine pourers and similar terms,though all of these terms are also used of a number of other shapes,especially the smaller tripod jue and the larger zun.
The Tomb of Fu Hao lies within Yinxu,the site of the Late Shang capital,within the modern city of Anyang in Henan,China. The tomb was discovered in 1976 by Zheng Zhenxiang and excavated by the Anyang Working Team of the Archaeological Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences,who designated the tomb as M5. It is to date the only Shang royal tomb found intact with its contents and excavated by archaeologists.
Dame Jessica Mary Rawson,is an English art historian,curator and sinologist. She is also an academic administrator,specialising in Chinese art.
The Taotie is an ancient Chinese mythological creature that was commonly emblazoned on bronze and other artifacts during the 1st millennium BCE. Taotie are one of the Four Perils in Chinese classics like the Classic of Mountains and Seas,alongside the Hundun,Qiongqi,and Taowu.
From c. 1650 BC,elaborately decorated bronze vessels were deposited as grave goods in the tombs of royalty and nobility during the Chinese Bronze Age. Documented excavations have found over 200 pieces in a single royal tomb. They were produced for an individual or social group to use in making ritual offerings of food and drink to his or their ancestors and other deities or spirits. Such ceremonies generally took place in family temples or ceremonial halls over tombs. These ceremonies can be seen as ritual banquets in which both living and dead members of a family were supposed to participate. Details of these ritual ceremonies are preserved through early literary records. On the death of the owner of a ritual bronze,it would often be placed in his tomb,so that he could continue to pay his respects in the afterlife;other examples were cast specifically as grave goods. Indeed,many surviving examples have been excavated from graves.
A jue is a type of ancient Chinese ritual bronze vessel used to serve warm wine during ancestor-worship ceremonies. It takes the form of an ovoid body supported by three splayed triangular legs,with a long curved spout on one side and a counterbalancing flange on the other. Many examples have one or two loop handles on the side and two column-shaped protuberances on the top of the vessel,which were probably used to enable the vessel to be lifted using leather straps. They are often ornately decorated with taotie decorations representing mythical beasts. They are in effect a small Chinese equivalent of the ewer. The name jue is not original,but derives from the Shuowen Jiezi,a dictionary of the 2nd century AD.
A hu is a type of wine vessel that has a pear-shaped cross-section. Its body swells and flares into a narrow neck,creating S-shaped profile. While it is similar to you vessel,hu usually has a longer body and neck. The shape of hu probably derives from its ceramic prototype prior to the Shang dynasty. They usually have handles on the top or rings attached to each side of neck. Many extant hu lack lids while those excavated in such tombs as Fu Hao's indicate that this type of vessel might be originally made with lids. Although it is more often to see hu having a circular body,there also appears hu in square and flat rectangular forms,called fang hu and bian huArchived 2015-09-23 at the Wayback Machine in Chinese. In addition,hu often came to be found in a pair or in a set together with other types of vessels. As wine had played an important part in the Shang ritual,the hu vessel might be placed in the grave of an ancestor as part of ritual in order to ensure a good relationship with ancestor's spirit.
A jia is a ritual vessel type found in both pottery and bronze forms;it was used to hold libations of wine for the veneration of ancestors. It was made either with four legs or in the form of a tripod and included two pillar-like protrusions on the rim that were possibly used to suspend the vessel over heat. The earliest evidence of the Jia vessel type appears during the Neolithic Period. It was a prominent form during the Shang and early Western Zhou dynasties,but had disappeared by the mid-Western Zhou.
The Xianyun was an ancient nomadic tribe that invaded the Zhou dynasty. This Chinese exonym is written with xian獫 or 玁 "long-snouted dog",and this "dog" radical 犭is commonly used in graphic pejorative characters. "Xianyun" was the preferred designation for northern tribes during the Zhou dynasty,earlier designations being the Xunyu,Guifang,and later ones being the Xiongnu,during the Han dynasty.
Guifang was an ancient ethnonym for a northern people that fought against the Shang dynasty. Chinese historical tradition used various names,at different periods,for northern tribes such as Guifang,Rong,Di,Xunyu,Xianyun,or Xiongnu peoples. This Chinese exonym combines gui and fang,a suffix referring to "non-Shang or enemy countries that existed in and beyond the borders of the Shang polity."
A gu is a type of ancient Chinese ritual bronze vessel from the Shang and Zhou dynasties. It was used to drink wine or to offer ritual libations.
A gui is a type of bowl-shaped ancient Chinese ritual bronze vessel used to hold offerings of food,probably mainly grain,for ancestral tombs. As with other shapes,the ritual bronzes followed early pottery versions for domestic use,and were recalled in later art in both metal,pottery,and sometimes stone. The shape changed somewhat over the centuries but constant characteristics are a circular form,with a rounded,wide,profile or shape from the side,standing on a narrower rim or foot. There are usually two,or sometimes four,handles,and there may be a cover or a square base.
A fangyi is a type of Chinese ritual bronze container typical of the Shang and early to middle Zhou periods of Bronze Age China. It takes the shape of a square or rectangular casket with a cover that resembles a hip roof,surmounted by a knob of a similar hipped appearance. The lower edge is typically indented with a semi-circular notch.
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