National Academy of Sciences

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National Academy of Sciences
FormationMarch 3, 1863;161 years ago (1863-03-03)
Founders Alexander Dallas Bache
Abraham Lincoln
Founded at2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C., U.S. 20418
TypeNGO
Coordinates 38°53′46″N77°02′12″W / 38.89598°N 77.03658°W / 38.89598; -77.03658
Parent organization
 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
Endowment $553.9 million (2020) [1]
Website nasonline.org

The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and the National Academy of Medicine (NAM).

Contents

As a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academy is one of the highest honors in the scientific field. Members of the National Academy of Sciences serve pro bono as "advisers to the nation" on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code.

Congress legislated, and President Abraham Lincoln signed, a 1863 Act of Congress establishing the National Academy of Sciences as an independent, trusted government institution created for the purpose of "providing independent, objective advice to the nation on matters related to science and technology [and] to provide scientific advice to the government 'whenever called upon' by any government department", [2] an objective that promulgated the academy with the broad and enduring purpose of enriching and providing resources to any part of the federal government—rather than as a tool of one branch, or executive agencies, which adds a risk or propensity of becoming the tool of one part of the government. The goal was somewhat unusual at the time, and also different than other knowledge based entities serving a branch of government, such as the Library of Congress. The academy receives no compensation from the government for its services. [3]

Overview

As of 2024, the National Academy of Sciences includes 2,687 NAS members and 531 international members. [4] It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005. [5] [6] Some 190 members have won a Nobel Prize. [4] By its own admission in 1989, the addition of women to the academy "continues at a dismal trickle"; at that time there were 1,516 male members and 57 female members. [7]

The National Academy of Sciences is one of the 135 member organizations of the International Science Council (ISC). Although there is no formal relationship with state and local academies of science, there often is informal dialogue. The National Academy is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers (president, vice president, home secretary, international secretary, and treasurer) and 12 Councilors, all of whom are elected from among the academy membership. [8] Agencies of the United States government fund about 85 percent of the academy's activities. Further funding comes from state governments, private foundations, and industrial organizations. [9]

The council has the ability ad-hoc to delegate certain tasks to committees. For example, the Committee on Animal Nutrition has produced a series of Nutrient requirements of domestic animals reports since at least 1944, each one being initiated by a different sub-committee of experts in the field for example on dairy cattle.[ citation needed ]

The National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D.C., which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies and makes more than 5,000 publications freely available on its website. [10]

From 2004 to 2017, the National Academy of Sciences administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museum's exhibits focused on climate change and infectious disease. In 2017, the museum closed and made way for a new science outreach program called LabX. [11] [12]

History

The Keck Center of the National Academies in Washington, D.C., one of several facilities where the National Academy of Sciences maintains offices Keck Center of the National Academies.JPG
The Keck Center of the National Academies in Washington, D.C., one of several facilities where the National Academy of Sciences maintains offices

The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3, 1863, created the National Academy of Sciences and named 50 charter members. Many of the original NAS members came from the so-called "Scientific Lazzaroni", an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts (c. 1850). [13]

In 1863, the organizers enlisted the support of Alexander Dallas Bache, and also Charles Henry Davis, a professional astronomer who had been recently recalled from the Navy to Washington to head the Bureau of Navigation. They also elicited support from Swiss-American geologist Louis Agassiz and American mathematician Peirce, who together planned the steps whereby the National Academy of Sciences was to be established. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. [14]

Agassiz was to come to Washington, D.C., at the government's expense to plan the organization with the others. This bypassed Joseph Henry, who was reluctant to have a bill for such an academy presented to Congress. This was in the belief that such a resolution would be "opposed as something at variance with our democratic institutions". Nevertheless, Henry soon became the second President of NAS. Agassiz, Davis, Peirce, Benjamin Gould and Senator Wilson met at Bache's house and "hurriedly wrote the bill incorporating the Academy, including in it the name of fifty incorporators". [15]

During the last hours of the session, when the Senate was immersed in the rush of last-minute business before its adjournment, Senator Wilson introduced the bill. Without examining it or debating its provisions, both the Senate and House approved it, and President Lincoln signed it. [15]

Although hailed as a great step forward in government recognition of the role of science in American society, at the time, the National Academy of Sciences created enormous ill-feelings among scientists, [15] whether or not they were named as incorporators.

The act states:

[T]he Academy shall, whenever called upon by any department of the Government, investigate, examine, experiment, and report upon any subject of science or art, the actual expense of such investigations, examinations, experiments, and reports to be paid from appropriations which may be made for the purpose, but the Academy shall receive no compensation whatever for any services to the Government of the United States. [16]

The National Academies did not solve the problems facing a nation in Civil War as the Lazzaroni had hoped, nor did it centralize American scientific efforts. [15] However, election to the National Academy did come to be considered "the pinnacle of scientific achievement for Americans" until the establishment of the Nobel Prize at the end of the 19th century. [17] : 30 

In 1870, the congressional charter was amended to remove the limitation on the number of members. [18]

In 2013, astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson was asked to write a speech for the 150th anniversary of the Gettysburg Address in which he made the point that one of Lincoln's greatest legacies was establishing the National Academy of Sciences in that same year, which had the long-term effect of "setting our Nation on a course of scientifically enlightened governance, without which we all may perish from this Earth". [19]

Membership

The academy currently (as of late-2024) has 6892 members, including international ones, both past and present. 3218 of them are living. Existing members elect new members for life. Up to 120 members are elected every year while up to 30 foreign citizens may be elected as international members annually. The election process begins with a formal nomination, followed by a vetting period, and culminates in a final ballot at the academy's annual meeting in April each year. Members are affiliated with a specific scientific field in one of six so-called "classes", which include: Physical and Mathematical Sciences; Biological Sciences; Engineering and Applied Sciences; Biomedical Sciences; Behavioral and Social Sciences; and Applied Biological, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences. [6]

Over the entire history of the NAS, Harvard University is associated with the most members (331) overall, while the University of California at Berkeley is associated with the most members (255) without including the medical school. E.g. of the topmost schools, UC Berkeley/MIT/Princeton/Caltech do not have medical schools, while Harvard/Stanford do. The top ten institutions, two of which are from the University of California System and another four of which are in the Ivy League, account for nearly 28% of all members ever elected. Those ten are also precisely the only institutions in the entire history of the NAS to have had 100 or more members overall.

On the list for living members, only 14 institutions have 50 or more members overall, including the medical school (where it applies). They represent 32% of all living members of the NAS.

Top 14 Primary Institutions (50 and more Living Members)Living Members (Including Medical School)Living Members (Excluding Medical School)
Harvard University**183 [20] 115 [21]
Stanford University**175 [22] 146 [23]
University of California at Berkeley 138 [24] 138 [25]
Massachusetts Institute of Technology 121 [26] 121 [27]
Princeton University 92 [28] 92 [29]
Columbia University**75 [30] 66 [31]
California Institute of Technology 69 [32] 69 [33]
Yale University**67 [34] 49 [35]
University of Chicago**60 [36] 60 [37]
University of California San Diego**54 [38] 51 [39]
Max Planck Institutes (Germany) 52 [40] 52 [41]
University of California Los Angeles**51 [42] 43 [43]
University of Washington**50 [44] 45 [45]
National Institutes of Health 50 [46] 50 [47]
    Top 10 Primary Institutions (All-time Members)All-time Members (1863–2024) (Excluding Medical School)All-time Members (1863–2024) (Including Medical School)
    University of California at Berkeley 255 [48] 255 [49]
    Harvard University**235 [50] 331 [51]
    Stanford University**234 [52] 274 [53]
    Massachusetts Institute of Technology 219 [54] 219 [55]
    Princeton University 133 [56] 133 [57]
    California Institute of Technology 132 [58] 132 [59]
    University of Chicago**129 [60] 130 [61]
    Columbia University**124 [62] 136 [63]
    University of California San Diego**116 [64] 122 [65]
    Yale University**103 [66] 137 [67]

      Facilities

      The National Academies' Beckman Conference Center in Irvine, California Beckman Conference Center, National Academies (USA).JPG
      The National Academies' Beckman Conference Center in Irvine, California

      The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States. The National Academy of Sciences Building is located at 2101 Constitution Avenue, in northwest Washington, D.C.; it sits on the National Mall, adjacent to the Marriner S. Eccles Federal Reserve Board Building and in front of the headquarters of the U.S. State Department. The building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 [68] and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Goodhue engaged a team of artists and architectural sculptors including Albert Herter, Lee Lawrie, and Hildreth Meière to design interior embellishments celebrating the history and significance of science. [69] The building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. Cultural Programs of the National Academy of Sciences hosts exhibitions exploring intersections of art, science, and culture such as Mathemalchemy. [70] The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5, 2014. Approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. In June 2012, it reopened to visitors after a major two-year restoration project which restored and improved the building's historic spaces, increased accessibility, and brought the building's aging infrastructure and facilities up to date. [71]

      More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, D.C. The Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. [72] The Marian Koshland Science Museum of the National Academy of Sciences – formerly located at 525 E St., N.W. – hosted visits from the public, school field trips, and permanent science exhibits. [73]

      NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts. [72] The Arnold and Mabel Beckman Center is located on 100 Academy Drive in Irvine, California, near the campus of the University of California, Irvine; it offers a conference center and houses several NAS programs. The J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center, located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is an NAS conference facility.

      Presidents

      The president is the head of the academy, elected by a majority vote of the membership to serve in this position for a term to be determined by the governing Council, not to exceed six years, and may be re-elected for a second term. The academy has had 22 presidents since its foundation. [74] The current president is geophysicist Marcia K. McNutt, the first woman to hold this position. Her term expires on June 30, 2022. [75]

      Awards

      The academy gives a number of different awards:

      Joint Declaration on Global Warming

      In 2005, the national science academies of the G8  forum (including the National Academy of Sciences) and science academies of Brazil, China, and India (three of the largest emitters of greenhouse gases in the developing world) signed a statement on the global response to climate change. The statement stresses that the scientific understanding of climate change had become sufficiently clear to justify nations taking prompt action. [77]

      On May 7, 2010, a letter signed by 255 Academy members was published in Science magazine, decrying "political assaults" against climate change scientists. [78] [79] This was in response to a civil investigative demand on the University of Virginia (UVA) by Virginia Attorney General Ken Cuccinelli, seeking a broad range of documents from Michael E. Mann, a former UVA professor from 1999 to 2005. [80] [81] Mann, who currently works at the University of Pennsylvania, is a climate change researcher, and Cuccinelli alleges that Mann may have defrauded Virginia taxpayers in the course of his environmental research. Investigations had cleared Mann of charges that he falsified or suppressed data. [82]

      See also

      Notable appointments

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      References

      1. ↑ As of June 30, 2020. U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year 2020 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY19 to FY20 (Report). National Association of College and University Business Officers and TIAA. February 19, 2021. Archived from the original on February 21, 2021. Retrieved February 20, 2021.
      2. ↑ "Mission". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on October 20, 2023. Retrieved April 15, 2022.
      3. ↑ "Overview: NAS Mission". National Academies of Science. Archived from the original on October 20, 2023. Retrieved April 25, 2015.
      4. 1 2 "About NAS: Membership". National Academy of Sciences. 2013. Archived from the original on March 20, 2019. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
      5. ↑ Alberts, Bruce (2005). "Summing Up: Creating a Scientific Temper for the World" (PDF). National Academy of Sciences. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved April 28, 2009.
      6. 1 2 "Overview: Membership". nasonline.org. Archived from the original on March 20, 2019. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
      7. ↑ "News of the week from the science world". Journals. San Francisco Examiner. May 20, 1989. p. D-2. Retrieved April 15, 2022– via Newspapers.com.
      8. ↑ "Constitution". National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved July 20, 2014.
      9. ↑ "Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences FAQ". The National Academies. Archived from the original on April 13, 2009. Retrieved June 8, 2019.
      10. ↑ "Newsroom". National-Academies.org. June 2, 2011. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
      11. ↑ https://webassets.nationalacademies.org/LabX/audience-research/
      12. ↑ https://archive.informalscience.org/science-out-box-exploring-pathways-relevance-millennial-generation
      13. ↑ ITS. "Founding of the National Academy of Sciences". .nationalacademies.org. Archived from the original on February 3, 2013. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
      14. ↑ For an analysis of the motives by Alexander Dallas Bache for founding the NAS, see Jansen, Axel (2011). Alexander Dallas Bache: Building the American Nation through Science and Education in the Nineteenth Century. Campus. p. 285-314.
      15. 1 2 3 4 Miller, Lillian; Voss, Frederick; Hussey, Jeannette (1972). The Lazzaroni: science and scientists in mid-nineteenth-century America. Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 121. Archived from the original on May 25, 2007. Retrieved October 26, 2007.
      16. ↑ OCGA. "An Act to Incorporate the National Academy of Sciences". .nationalacademies.org. Archived from the original on April 17, 2007. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
      17. ↑ Stankus, Tony (December 6, 2019). Stankus, Tony (ed.). Scientific Journals. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003002222. ISBN   978-1-003-00222-2. S2CID   34142177.
      18. ↑ A Chronicle of Public Laws Calling for Action by the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, Institute of Medicine, [and] National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academies. 1985. p. 5. NAP:11820. Retrieved March 22, 2014. [16 Stat. 277 and 36 U.S.C. § 252], Accessed at Google Books
      19. ↑ "Neil deGrasse Tyson's Gettysburg Reply – "The Seedbed"". YouTube.
      20. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=6dbdc32a52b4b3a38e14f8665eba1bd6%2Cdana-farber-harvard-cancer-center%2Charvard-medical-school%2Charvard-t.h.-chan-school-of-public-health%2Charvard-university&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      21. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=6dbdc32a52b4b3a38e14f8665eba1bd6%2Charvard-university&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      22. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=slac-national-accelerator-laboratory%2Cstanford-university%2Cstanford-university-school-of-medicine&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      23. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=slac-national-accelerator-laboratory%2Cstanford-university&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      24. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=6cde08dc58cc50cef02f9b4808ee3a0f&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      25. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=6cde08dc58cc50cef02f9b4808ee3a0f&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      26. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=massachusetts-institute-of-technology&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      27. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=massachusetts-institute-of-technology&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      28. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=princeton-plasma-physics-laboratory%2Cprinceton-university%2Cprinceton-university-observatory&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      29. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=princeton-plasma-physics-laboratory%2Cprinceton-university%2Cprinceton-university-observatory&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      30. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=columbia-university%2Ccolumbia-university-medical-center%2Ccolumbia-university-vagelos-college-of-physicians-%2Clamont-doherty-earth-observatory-of-columbia-unive&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      31. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=columbia-university%2Clamont-doherty-earth-observatory-of-columbia-unive&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      32. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=california-institute-of-technology%2Cb1fe0f1fe70a71519129b4dbdc79bc5f&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      33. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=california-institute-of-technology%2Cb1fe0f1fe70a71519129b4dbdc79bc5f&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      34. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=yale-school-of-medicine%2Cyale-school-of-public-health%2Cyale-university&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      35. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=yale-university&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      36. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=the-university-of-chicago%2Cthe-university-of-chicago-booth-school-of-business%2Cthe-university-of-chicago-medical-center&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      37. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=the-university-of-chicago%2Cthe-university-of-chicago-booth-school-of-business&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      38. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=scripps-institution-of-oceanography%2Cbf7ffba481d94865ea4c0d70066c0e26%2Cc822815cbb3d7e0b2186e1f61eaf1d7a&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      39. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=scripps-institution-of-oceanography%2Cbf7ffba481d94865ea4c0d70066c0e26&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      40. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=max-planck-institute-for-astrophysics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-biogeochemistry%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-biological-cybernetics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-biological-intelligence%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-biology%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-biophysical-chemistry%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-brain-research%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-chemical-ecology%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-chemical-physics-of-solid%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-chemistry%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-developmental-biology%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-evolutionary-anthropology%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-extraterrestrial-physics%2C7c9fa03883ba16a469a1dcfbe013dce4%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-informatics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-mathematics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-multidisciplinary-science%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-plant-breeding-research%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-psycholinguistics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-quantum-optics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-solar-system-research%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-solid-state-research%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-terrestrial-microbiology%2C4daf24dd9a0c41f23be8350d9bb6f8f5%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-biochemistry%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-biophysics%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-microstructure-physics%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-molecular-cell-biology-and%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-molecular-plant-physiology%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-neurobiology%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-quantum-optics%2Cmax-planck-society-for-the-advancement-of-science%2Cmax-planck-unit-for-the-science-of-pathogens%2Cmax-delbruck-center-for-molecular-medicine&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      41. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=max-planck-institute-for-astrophysics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-biogeochemistry%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-biological-cybernetics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-biological-intelligence%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-biology%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-biophysical-chemistry%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-brain-research%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-chemical-ecology%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-chemical-physics-of-solid%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-chemistry%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-developmental-biology%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-evolutionary-anthropology%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-extraterrestrial-physics%2C7c9fa03883ba16a469a1dcfbe013dce4%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-informatics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-mathematics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-multidisciplinary-science%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-plant-breeding-research%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-psycholinguistics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-quantum-optics%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-solar-system-research%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-solid-state-research%2Cmax-planck-institute-for-terrestrial-microbiology%2C4daf24dd9a0c41f23be8350d9bb6f8f5%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-biochemistry%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-biophysics%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-microstructure-physics%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-molecular-cell-biology-and%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-molecular-plant-physiology%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-neurobiology%2Cmax-planck-institute-of-quantum-optics%2Cmax-planck-society-for-the-advancement-of-science%2Cmax-planck-unit-for-the-science-of-pathogens%2Cmax-delbruck-center-for-molecular-medicine&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      42. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=david-geffen-school-of-medicine-at-ucla%2Cinstitute-of-pure-and-applied-mathematics%2Cf270c395b36957cccf34862290942b7f&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      43. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=institute-of-pure-and-applied-mathematics%2Cf270c395b36957cccf34862290942b7f&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      44. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=university-of-washington%2Cuniversity-of-washington-school-of-medicine&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      45. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=university-of-washington&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      46. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=national-cancer-institute%2Cebb7864cca87c958bd55ec8a9fa919ef%2Cnational-human-genome-research-institute%2Cnational-institute-of-environmental-health-science%2Cnational-institutes-of-health&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      47. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=national-cancer-institute%2Cebb7864cca87c958bd55ec8a9fa919ef%2Cnational-human-genome-research-institute%2Cnational-institute-of-environmental-health-science%2Cnational-institutes-of-health&_livingdeceased=living&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      48. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=6cde08dc58cc50cef02f9b4808ee3a0f&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      49. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=6cde08dc58cc50cef02f9b4808ee3a0f&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      50. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=6dbdc32a52b4b3a38e14f8665eba1bd6%2Charvard-university%2Charvard-smithsonian-center-for-astrophysics&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      51. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=6dbdc32a52b4b3a38e14f8665eba1bd6%2Cdana-farber-harvard-cancer-center%2Charvard-medical-school%2Charvard-school-of-public-health%2Charvard-t.h.-chan-school-of-public-health%2Charvard-university%2Charvard-smithsonian-center-for-astrophysics&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      52. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=slac-national-accelerator-laboratory%2Cstanford-university&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      53. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=slac-national-accelerator-laboratory%2Cstanford-university%2Cstanford-university-medical-center%2Cstanford-university-school-of-medicine&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      54. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=massachusetts-institute-of-technology&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      55. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=massachusetts-institute-of-technology&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      56. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=princeton-plasma-physics-laboratory%2Cprinceton-university%2Cprinceton-university-observatory&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      57. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=princeton-plasma-physics-laboratory%2Cprinceton-university%2Cprinceton-university-observatory&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      58. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=california-institute-of-technology%2Cb1fe0f1fe70a71519129b4dbdc79bc5f&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      59. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=california-institute-of-technology%2Cb1fe0f1fe70a71519129b4dbdc79bc5f&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      60. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=the-university-of-chicago%2Cthe-university-of-chicago-booth-school-of-business&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      61. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=the-university-of-chicago%2Cthe-university-of-chicago-booth-school-of-business%2Cthe-university-of-chicago-medical-center&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      62. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=columbia-university%2Clamont-doherty-earth-observatory-of-columbia-unive&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      63. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=columbia-university%2Ccolumbia-university-college-of-physicians-and-surg%2Ccolumbia-university-medical-center%2Ccolumbia-university-vagelos-college-of-physicians-%2Clamont-doherty-earth-observatory-of-columbia-unive&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      64. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=scripps-institution-of-oceanography%2Cbf7ffba481d94865ea4c0d70066c0e26&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      65. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=scripps-institution-of-oceanography%2Cbf7ffba481d94865ea4c0d70066c0e26%2Cc822815cbb3d7e0b2186e1f61eaf1d7a&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      66. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=yale-university&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      67. ↑ https://www.nasonline.org/membership/member-directory/?_primary_institution=yale-school-of-medicine%2Cyale-school-of-public-health%2Cyale-university&_member_directory_sort=last_name_asc
      68. ↑ National Academy of Sciences. "The NAS Building ... a Temple of Science". Archived from the original on December 29, 2010. Retrieved October 12, 2010.
      69. ↑ "A Home for Science in America". www.nasonline.org. Archived from the original on July 19, 2015. Retrieved July 27, 2015.
      70. ↑ Mathemalchemy to Open at NAS Cultural Programs of the National Academy of Sciences, January 12, 2022
      71. ↑ "Restoration of Historic National Academy of Sciences Building". CPNAS. National Academy of Sciences. 2013. Retrieved August 12, 2013.
      72. 1 2 National Academy of Sciences. "Visiting Our Buildings". Archived from the original on April 23, 2011. Retrieved October 12, 2010.
      73. ↑ "Marian Koshland Science Museum of the National Academy of Sciences" . Retrieved October 12, 2010.
      74. ↑ Seitz, Frederick. "A Selection of Highlights from the History of the National Academy of Sciences, 1863-2005". NAS. Archived from the original on November 23, 2023. Retrieved November 22, 2023.
      75. ↑ "Leadership and Governance". National Academy of Sciences. 2023. Archived from the original on April 6, 2022. Retrieved November 22, 2023.
      76. ↑ Alberts, Bruce; Fulton, Kenneth R. (2005). "Editorial: Election to the National Academy of Sciences: Pathways to membership". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (21): 7405–7406. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.7405A. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0503457102 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   1140467 . PMID   16586925.
      77. ↑ "Statement on Global Response to Climate Change". The Royal Society. June 7, 2005.
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      79. ↑ "Open letter: Climate change and the integrity of science". The Guardian. May 6, 2010. Archived from the original on October 5, 2013. Retrieved December 12, 2016.
      80. ↑ "Curriculum Vitae: Michael E. Mann". psu dot edu. Archived from the original on May 12, 2013. Retrieved July 5, 2013.
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      82. ↑ Foley, Henry C.; Alan W. Scaroni; Candice A. Yekel (February 3, 2010). "RA-10 Inquiry Report: Concerning the Allegations of Research Misconduct Against Dr. Michael E. Mann, Department of Meteorology, College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University" (PDF). The Pennsylvania State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 15, 2010. Retrieved February 7, 2010.
      83. 1 2 3 "Membership FAQ". NAS. Archived from the original on March 5, 2018. Retrieved September 10, 2016.
      84. ↑ "Neurobiologist Becomes First Transgender Scientist Selected For U.S. National Academy of Science Membership". Trans News. May 11, 2013. Archived from the original on October 17, 2014. Retrieved April 15, 2022.

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