Fine-tuned universe

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The characterization of the universe as finely tuned intends to explain why the known constants of nature, such as the electron charge, the gravitational constant, and the like, have their measured values rather than some other arbitrary values. According to the "fine-tuned universe" hypothesis, if these constants' values were too different from what they are, "life as we know it" could not exist. [1] [2] [3] [4] In practice, this hypothesis is formulated in terms of dimensionless physical constants. [5]

Contents

History

In 1913, the chemist Lawrence Joseph Henderson wrote The Fitness of the Environment, one of the first books to explore fine tuning in the universe. Henderson discusses the importance of water and the environment to living things, pointing out that life as it exists on Earth depends entirely on Earth's very specific environmental conditions, especially the prevalence and properties of water. [6]

In 1961, physicist Robert H. Dicke claimed that certain forces in physics, such as gravity and electromagnetism, must be perfectly fine-tuned for life to exist in the universe. [7] [8] Fred Hoyle also argued for a fine-tuned universe in his 1983 book The Intelligent Universe. [9] Hoyle wrote: "The list of anthropic properties, apparent accidents of a non-biological nature without which carbon-based and hence human life could not exist, is large and impressive". [10]

Belief in the fine-tuned universe led to the expectation that the Large Hadron Collider would produce evidence of physics beyond the Standard Model, such as supersymmetry, [11] but by 2012 it had not produced evidence for supersymmetry at the energy scales it was able to probe. [12]

Motivation

Physicist Paul Davies said: "There is now broad agreement among physicists and cosmologists that the Universe is in several respects 'fine-tuned' for life. But the conclusion is not so much that the Universe is fine-tuned for life; rather it is fine-tuned for the building blocks and environments that life requires". [13] He also said that "' anthropic' reasoning fails to distinguish between minimally biophilic universes, in which life is permitted, but only marginally possible, and optimally biophilic universes, in which life flourishes because biogenesis occurs frequently". [14] Among scientists who find the evidence persuasive, a variety of natural explanations have been proposed, such as the existence of multiple universes introducing a survivorship bias under the anthropic principle. [5]

The premise of the fine-tuned universe assertion is that a small change in several of the physical constants would make the universe radically different. Stephen Hawking observed: "The laws of science, as we know them at present, contain many fundamental numbers, like the size of the electric charge of the electron and the ratio of the masses of the proton and the electron. ... The remarkable fact is that the values of these numbers seem to have been very finely adjusted to make possible the development of life". [4]

For example, if the strong nuclear force were 2% stronger than it is (i.e. if the coupling constant representing its strength were 2% larger) while the other constants were left unchanged, diprotons would be stable; according to Davies, hydrogen would fuse into them instead of deuterium and helium. [15] This would drastically alter the physics of stars, and presumably preclude the existence of life similar to what we observe on Earth. The diproton's existence would short-circuit the slow fusion of hydrogen into deuterium. Hydrogen would fuse so easily that it is likely that all the universe's hydrogen would be consumed in the first few minutes after the Big Bang. [15] This "diproton argument" is disputed by other physicists, who calculate that as long as the increase in strength is less than 50%, stellar fusion could occur despite the existence of stable diprotons. [16]

The precise formulation of the idea is made difficult by the fact that it is not yet known how many independent physical constants there are. The standard model of particle physics has 25 freely adjustable parameters and general relativity has one more, the cosmological constant, which is known to be nonzero but profoundly small in value. Because physicists have not developed an empirically successful theory of quantum gravity, there is no known way to combine quantum mechanics, on which the standard model depends, and general relativity. [17]

Without knowledge of this more complete theory suspected to underlie the standard model, it is impossible to definitively count the number of truly independent physical constants. In some candidate theories, the number of independent physical constants may be as small as one. For example, the cosmological constant may be a fundamental constant but attempts have also been made to calculate it from other constants, and according to the author of one such calculation, "the small value of the cosmological constant is telling us that a remarkably precise and totally unexpected relation exists among all the parameters of the Standard Model of particle physics, the bare cosmological constant and unknown physics". [17]

Examples

Martin Rees formulates the fine-tuning of the universe in terms of the following six dimensionless physical constants. [1] [18]

Max Tegmark argued that if there is more than one time dimension, then physical systems' behavior could not be predicted reliably from knowledge of the relevant partial differential equations. In such a universe, intelligent life capable of manipulating technology could not emerge. Moreover, protons and electrons would be unstable and could decay into particles having greater mass than themselves. This is not a problem if the particles have a sufficiently low temperature. [23]

Carbon and oxygen

An older example is the Hoyle state, the third-lowest energy state of the carbon-12 nucleus, with an energy of 7.656 MeV above the ground level. [24] According to one calculation, if the state's energy level were lower than 7.3 or greater than 7.9 MeV, insufficient carbon would exist to support life. To explain the universe's abundance of carbon, the Hoyle state must be further tuned to a value between 7.596 and 7.716 MeV. A similar calculation, focusing on the underlying fundamental constants that give rise to various energy levels, concludes that the strong force must be tuned to a precision of at least 0.5%, and the electromagnetic force to a precision of at least 4%, to prevent either carbon production or oxygen production from dropping significantly. [25]

Explanations

Some explanations of fine-tuning are naturalistic. [26] First, the fine-tuning might be an illusion: more fundamental physics may explain the apparent fine-tuning in physical parameters in our current understanding by constraining the values those parameters are likely to take. As Lawrence Krauss put it, "certain quantities have seemed inexplicable and fine-tuned, and once we understand them, they don't seem to be so fine-tuned. We have to have some historical perspective". [22] Some argue it is possible that a final fundamental theory of everything will explain the underlying causes of the apparent fine-tuning in every parameter. [27] [22]

Still, as modern cosmology developed, various hypotheses not presuming hidden order have been proposed. One is a multiverse, where fundamental physical constants are postulated to have different values outside of our own universe. [28] [29] On this hypothesis, separate parts of reality would have wildly different characteristics. In such scenarios, the appearance of fine-tuning is explained as a consequence of the weak anthropic principle and selection bias, specifically survivorship bias. Only those universes with fundamental constants hospitable to life, such as on Earth, could contain life forms capable of observing the universe and contemplating the question of fine-tuning in the first place. [30] Zhi-Wei Wang and Samuel L. Braunstein argue that the apparent fine-tuning of fundamental constants could be due to our lack of understanding of these constants. [31]

Multiverse

If the universe is just one of many and possibly infinite universes, each with different physical phenomena and constants, it is unsurprising that there is a universe hospitable to intelligent life. Some versions of the multiverse hypothesis therefore provide a simple explanation for any fine-tuning, [5] while the analysis of Wang and Braunstein challenges the view that our universe is unique in its ability to support life. [31]

The multiverse idea has led to considerable research into the anthropic principle and has been of particular interest to particle physicists because theories of everything do apparently generate large numbers of universes in which the physical constants vary widely. Although there is no evidence for the existence of a multiverse, some versions of the theory make predictions of which some researchers studying M-theory and gravity leaks hope to see some evidence soon. [32] According to Laura Mersini-Houghton, the WMAP cold spot could provide testable empirical evidence of a parallel universe. [33] Variants of this approach include Lee Smolin's notion of cosmological natural selection, the ekpyrotic universe, and the bubble universe theory. [32] :220–221

It has been suggested that invoking the multiverse to explain fine-tuning is a form of the inverse gambler's fallacy. [34] [35]

Top-down cosmology

Stephen Hawking and Thomas Hertog proposed that the universe's initial conditions consisted of a superposition of many possible initial conditions, only a small fraction of which contributed to the conditions seen today. [36] According to their theory, the universe's "fine-tuned" physical constants are inevitable, because the universe "selects" only those histories that led to the present conditions. In this way, top-down cosmology provides an anthropic explanation for why this universe allows matter and life without invoking the multiverse. [37]

Carbon chauvinism

Some forms of fine-tuning arguments about the formation of life assume that only carbon-based life forms are possible, an assumption sometimes called carbon chauvinism. [38] Conceptually, alternative biochemistry or other forms of life are possible. [39]

Alien design

One hypothesis is that extra-universal aliens designed the universe. Some believe this would solve the problem of how a designer or design team capable of fine-tuning the universe could come to exist. [40] Cosmologist Alan Guth believes humans will in time be able to generate new universes. [41] By implication, previous intelligent entities may have generated our universe. [42] This idea leads to the possibility that the extra-universal designer/designers are themselves the product of an evolutionary process in their own universe, which must therefore itself be able to sustain life. It also raises the question of where that universe came from, leading to an infinite regress. John Gribbin's Designer Universe theory suggests that an advanced civilization could have deliberately made the universe in another part of the multiverse, and that this civilization may have caused the Big Bang. [43]

Simulation hypothesis

The simulation hypothesis holds that the universe is fine-tuned simply because the more technologically advanced simulation operator(s) programmed it that way. [44]

No improbability

Graham Priest, Mark Colyvan, Jay L. Garfield, and others have argued against the presupposition that "the laws of physics or the boundary conditions of the universe could have been other than they are". [45]

Religious apologetics

Some scientists, theologians, and philosophers, as well as certain religious groups, argue that providence or creation are responsible for fine-tuning. [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] Christian philosopher Alvin Plantinga argues that random chance, applied to a single and sole universe, only raises the question as to why this universe could be so "lucky" as to have precise conditions that support life at least at some place (the Earth) and time (within millions of years of the present).

One reaction to these apparent enormous coincidences is to see them as substantiating the theistic claim that the universe has been created by a personal God and as offering the material for a properly restrained theistic argument hence the fine-tuning argument. It's as if there are a large number of dials that have to be tuned to within extremely narrow limits for life to be possible in our universe. It is extremely unlikely that this should happen by chance, but much more likely that this should happen if there is such a person as God.

Alvin Plantinga, "The Dawkins Confusion: Naturalism ad absurdum" [51]

William Lane Craig, a philosopher and Christian apologist, cites this fine-tuning of the universe as evidence for the existence of God or some form of intelligence capable of manipulating (or designing) the basic physics that governs the universe. [52] Philosopher and theologian Richard Swinburne reaches the design conclusion using Bayesian probability. [53] Scientist and theologian Alister McGrath observed that the fine-tuning of carbon is even responsible for nature's ability to tune itself to any degree.

The entire biological evolutionary process depends upon the unusual chemistry of carbon, which allows it to bond to itself, as well as other elements, creating highly complex molecules that are stable over prevailing terrestrial temperatures, and are capable of conveying genetic information (especially DNA). [...] Whereas it might be argued that nature creates its own fine-tuning, this can only be done if the primordial constituents of the universe are such that an evolutionary process can be initiated. The unique chemistry of carbon is the ultimate foundation of the capacity of nature to tune itself. [54] [55]

Theoretical physicist and Anglican priest John Polkinghorne stated: "Anthropic fine tuning is too remarkable to be dismissed as just a happy accident". [56] Theologian and philosopher Andrew Loke argues that there are only five possible categories of hypotheses concerning fine-tuning and order: (i) chance, (ii) regularity, (iii) combinations of regularity and chance, (iv) uncaused, and (v) design, and that only design gives an exclusively logical explanation of order in the universe. [57] He argues that the Kalam Cosmological Argument strengthens the teleological argument by answering the question "Who designed the Designer?". [57] Creationist Hugh Ross advances a number of fine-tuning hypotheses. [58] [59] One is the existence of what Ross calls "vital poisons", which are elemental nutrients that are harmful in large quantities but essential for animal life in smaller quantities. [60]

Robin Collins argues that the universe is fine-tuned for scientific discoverability, and that this fine-tuning cannot be explained by the multiverse hypothesis. [61] According to Collins, the universe's laws, fundamental parameters, and initial conditions must be just right for the universe to be as discoverable as ours. According to Collins, examples of fine-tuning for discoverability include:

See also

Related Research Articles

The anthropic principle, also known as the observation selection effect, is the hypothesis that the range of possible observations that could be made about the universe is limited by the fact that observations are only possible in the type of universe that is capable of developing intelligent life. Proponents of the anthropic principle argue that it explains why the universe has the age and the fundamental physical constants necessary to accommodate intelligent life. If either had been significantly different, no one would have been around to make observations. Anthropic reasoning has been used to address the question as to why certain measured physical constants take the values that they do, rather than some other arbitrary values, and to explain a perception that the universe appears to be finely tuned for the existence of life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multiverse</span> Hypothetical group of multiple universes

The multiverse is the hypothetical set of all universes. Together, these universes are presumed to comprise everything that exists: the entirety of space, time, matter, energy, information, and the physical laws and constants that describe them. The different universes within the multiverse are called "parallel universes", "flat universes", "other universes", "alternate universes", "multiple universes", "plane universes", "parent and child universes", "many universes", or "many worlds". One common assumption is that the multiverse is a "patchwork quilt of separate universes all bound by the same laws of physics."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cosmological constant</span> Constant representing stress–energy density of the vacuum

In cosmology, the cosmological constant, alternatively called Einstein's cosmological constant, is a coefficient that Albert Einstein initially added to his field equations of general relativity. He later removed it; however, much later it was revived to express the energy density of space, or vacuum energy, that arises in quantum mechanics. It is closely associated with the concept of dark energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triple-alpha process</span> Nuclear fusion reaction chain converting helium to carbon

The triple-alpha process is a set of nuclear fusion reactions by which three helium-4 nuclei are transformed into carbon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lee Smolin</span> American theoretical physicist (born 1955)

Lee Smolin is an American theoretical physicist, a faculty member at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, an adjunct professor of physics at the University of Waterloo, and a member of the graduate faculty of the philosophy department at the University of Toronto. Smolin's 2006 book The Trouble with Physics criticized string theory as a viable scientific theory. He has made contributions to quantum gravity theory, in particular the approach known as loop quantum gravity. He advocates that the two primary approaches to quantum gravity, loop quantum gravity and string theory, can be reconciled as different aspects of the same underlying theory. He also advocates an alternative view on space and time that he calls temporal naturalism. His research interests also include cosmology, elementary particle theory, the foundations of quantum mechanics, and theoretical biology.

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In physics, a dimensionless physical constant is a physical constant that is dimensionless, i.e. a pure number having no units attached and having a numerical value that is independent of whatever system of units may be used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eddington number</span> Number of protons in the observable universe

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flatness problem</span> Cosmological fine-tuning problem

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Further reading

Defense of fine-tuning
Criticism of fine tuning