Multiverse

Last updated

The multiverse is the hypothetical set of all universes. [1] [lower-alpha 1] Together, these universes are presumed to comprise everything that exists: the entirety of space, time, matter, energy, information, and the physical laws and constants that describe them. The different universes within the multiverse are called "parallel universes", "flat universes", "other universes", "alternate universes", "multiple universes", "plane universes", "parent and child universes", "many universes", or "many worlds". One common assumption is that the multiverse is a "patchwork quilt of separate universes all bound by the same laws of physics." [2]

Contents

The concept of multiple universes, or a multiverse, has been discussed throughout history, including Greek philosophy. It has evolved and has been debated in various fields, including cosmology, physics, and philosophy. Some physicists argue that the multiverse is a philosophical notion rather than a scientific hypothesis, as it cannot be empirically falsified. In recent years, there have been proponents and skeptics of multiverse theories within the physics community. Although some scientists have analyzed data in search of evidence for other universes, no statistically significant evidence has been found. Critics argue that the multiverse concept lacks testability and falsifiability, which are essential for scientific inquiry, and that it raises unresolved metaphysical issues.

Max Tegmark and Brian Greene have proposed different classification schemes for multiverses and universes. Tegmark's four-level classification consists of Level I: an extension of our universe, Level II: universes with different physical constants, Level III: many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, and Level IV: ultimate ensemble. Brian Greene's nine types of multiverses include quilted, inflationary, brane, cyclic, landscape, quantum, holographic, simulated, and ultimate. The ideas explore various dimensions of space, physical laws, and mathematical structures to explain the existence and interactions of multiple universes. Some other multiverse concepts include twin-world models, cyclic theories, M-theory, and black-hole cosmology.

The anthropic principle suggests that the existence of a multitude of universes, each with different physical laws, could explain the asserted appearance of fine-tuning of our own universe for conscious life. The weak anthropic principle posits that we exist in one of the few universes that support life. Debates around Occam's razor and the simplicity of the multiverse versus a single universe arise, with proponents like Max Tegmark arguing that the multiverse is simpler and more elegant. The many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics and modal realism, the belief that all possible worlds exist and are as real as our world, are also subjects of debate in the context of the anthropic principle.

History of the concept

According to some, the idea of infinite worlds was first suggested by the pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Anaximander in the sixth century BCE. [3] However, there is debate as to whether he believed in multiple worlds, and if he did, whether those worlds were co-existent or successive. [4] [5] [6] [7]

The first to whom we can definitively attribute the concept of innumerable worlds are the Ancient Greek Atomists, beginning with Leucippus and Democritus in the 5th century BCE, followed by Epicurus (341–270 BCE) and Lucretius (1st century BCE). [8] [9] [7] [10] [11] [12] In the third century BCE, the philosopher Chrysippus suggested that the world eternally expired and regenerated, effectively suggesting the existence of multiple universes across time. [11] The concept of multiple universes became more defined in the Middle Ages.[ citation needed ]

The American philosopher and psychologist William James used the term "multiverse" in 1895, but in a different context. [13]

The concept first appeared in the modern scientific context in the course of the debate between Boltzmann and Zermelo in 1895. [14]

In Dublin in 1952, Erwin Schrödinger gave a lecture in which he jocularly warned his audience that what he was about to say might "seem lunatic". He said that when his equations seemed to describe several different histories, these were "not alternatives, but all really happen simultaneously". [15] This sort of duality is called "superposition".

Search for evidence

In the 1990s, after recent works of fiction about the concept gained popularity, scientific discussions about the multiverse and journal articles about it gained prominence. [16]

Around 2010, scientists such as Stephen M. Feeney analyzed Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) data and claimed to find evidence suggesting that this universe collided with other (parallel) universes in the distant past. [17] [18] [19] However, a more thorough analysis of data from the WMAP and from the Planck satellite, which has a resolution three times higher than WMAP, did not reveal any statistically significant evidence of such a bubble universe collision. [20] [21] In addition, there was no evidence of any gravitational pull of other universes on ours. [22] [23]

In 2015, an astrophysicist may have found evidence of alternate or parallel universes by looking back in time to a time immediately after the Big Bang, although it is still a matter of debate among physicists. [24] Dr. Ranga-Ram Chary, after analyzing the cosmic radiation spectrum, found a signal 4,500 times brighter than it should have been, based on the number of protons and electrons scientists believe existed in the very early universe. This signal—an emission line that arose from the formation of atoms during the era of recombination—is more consistent with a universe whose ratio of matter particles to photons is about 65 times greater than our own. There is a 30% chance that this signal is noise, and not really a signal at all; however, it is also possible that it exists because a parallel universe dumped some of its matter particles into our universe. If additional protons and electrons had been added to our universe during recombination, more atoms would have formed, more photons would have been emitted during their formation, and the signature line that arose from all of these emissions would be greatly enhanced. Chary himself is skeptical:

Many other regions beyond our observable universe would exist with each such region governed by a different set of physical parameters than the ones we have measured for our universe. [24]

— Ranga-Ram Chary, "USA Today"

Chary also noted: [25]

Unusual claims like evidence for alternate universes require a very high burden of proof. [25]

— Ranga-Ram Chary, "Universe Today"

The signature that Chary has isolated may be a consequence of incoming light from distant galaxies, or even from clouds of dust surrounding our own galaxy. [25]

Proponents and skeptics

Modern proponents of one or more of the multiverse hypotheses include Lee Smolin, [26] Don Page, [27] Brian Greene, [28] [29] Max Tegmark, [30] Alan Guth, [31] Andrei Linde, [32] Michio Kaku, [33] David Deutsch, [34] Leonard Susskind, [35] Alexander Vilenkin, [36] Yasunori Nomura, [37] Raj Pathria, [38] Laura Mersini-Houghton, [39] Neil deGrasse Tyson, [40] Sean Carroll [41] and Stephen Hawking. [42]

Scientists who are generally skeptical of the concept of a multiverse or popular multiverse hypotheses include Sabine Hossenfelder, [43] David Gross, [44] Paul Steinhardt, [45] [46] Anna Ijjas, [46] Abraham Loeb, [46] David Spergel, [47] Neil Turok, [48] Viatcheslav Mukhanov, [49] Michael S. Turner, [50] Roger Penrose, [51] George Ellis, [52] [53] Joe Silk, [54] Carlo Rovelli, [55] Adam Frank, [56] Marcelo Gleiser, [56] Jim Baggott [57] and Paul Davies. [58]

Arguments against multiverse hypotheses

In his 2003 New York Times opinion piece, "A Brief History of the Multiverse", author and cosmologist Paul Davies offered a variety of arguments that multiverse hypotheses are non-scientific: [59]

For a start, how is the existence of the other universes to be tested? To be sure, all cosmologists accept that there are some regions of the universe that lie beyond the reach of our telescopes, but somewhere on the slippery slope between that and the idea that there is an infinite number of universes, credibility reaches a limit. As one slips down that slope, more and more must be accepted on faith, and less and less is open to scientific verification. Extreme multiverse explanations are therefore reminiscent of theological discussions. Indeed, invoking an infinity of unseen universes to explain the unusual features of the one we do see is just as ad hoc as invoking an unseen Creator. The multiverse theory may be dressed up in scientific language, but in essence, it requires the same leap of faith.

— Paul Davies, "A Brief History of the Multiverse", The New York Times

George Ellis, writing in August 2011, provided a criticism of the multiverse, and pointed out that it is not a traditional scientific theory. He accepts that the multiverse is thought to exist far beyond the cosmological horizon. He emphasized that it is theorized to be so far away that it is unlikely any evidence will ever be found. Ellis also explained that some theorists do not believe the lack of empirical testability and falsifiability is a major concern, but he is opposed to that line of thinking:

Many physicists who talk about the multiverse, especially advocates of the string landscape, do not care much about parallel universes per se. For them, objections to the multiverse as a concept are unimportant. Their theories live or die based on internal consistency and, one hopes, eventual laboratory testing.

Ellis says that scientists have proposed the idea of the multiverse as a way of explaining the nature of existence. He points out that it ultimately leaves those questions unresolved because it is a metaphysical issue that cannot be resolved by empirical science. He argues that observational testing is at the core of science and should not be abandoned: [60]

As skeptical as I am, I think the contemplation of the multiverse is an excellent opportunity to reflect on the nature of science and on the ultimate nature of existence: why we are here. ... In looking at this concept, we need an open mind, though not too open. It is a delicate path to tread. Parallel universes may or may not exist; the case is unproved. We are going to have to live with that uncertainty. Nothing is wrong with scientifically based philosophical speculation, which is what multiverse proposals are. But we should name it for what it is.

— George Ellis, "Does the Multiverse Really Exist?", Scientific American

Philosopher Philip Goff argues that the inference of a multiverse to explain the apparent fine-tuning of the universe is an example of Inverse Gambler's Fallacy. [61]

Stoeger, Ellis, and Kircher [62] : sec. 7  note that in a true multiverse theory, "the universes are then completely disjoint and nothing that happens in any one of them is causally linked to what happens in any other one. This lack of any causal connection in such multiverses really places them beyond any scientific support".

In May 2020, astrophysicist Ethan Siegel expressed criticism in a Forbes blog post that parallel universes would have to remain a science fiction dream for the time being, based on the scientific evidence available to us. [63]

Scientific American contributor John Horgan also argues against the idea of a multiverse, claiming that they are "bad for science." [64]

Types

Max Tegmark and Brian Greene have devised classification schemes for the various theoretical types of multiverses and universes that they might comprise.

Max Tegmark's four levels

Cosmologist Max Tegmark has provided a taxonomy of universes beyond the familiar observable universe. The four levels of Tegmark's classification are arranged such that subsequent levels can be understood to encompass and expand upon previous levels. They are briefly described below. [65] [66]

Level I: An extension of our universe

A prediction of cosmic inflation is the existence of an infinite ergodic universe, which, being infinite, must contain Hubble volumes realizing all initial conditions.

Accordingly, an infinite universe will contain an infinite number of Hubble volumes, all having the same physical laws and physical constants. In regard to configurations such as the distribution of matter, almost all will differ from our Hubble volume. However, because there are infinitely many, far beyond the cosmological horizon, there will eventually be Hubble volumes with similar, and even identical, configurations. Tegmark estimates that an identical volume to ours should be about 1010115 meters away from us. [30]

Given infinite space, there would be an infinite number of Hubble volumes identical to ours in the universe. [67] This follows directly from the cosmological principle, wherein it is assumed that our Hubble volume is not special or unique.

Level II: Universes with different physical constants

In the eternal inflation theory, which is a variant of the cosmic inflation theory, the multiverse or space as a whole is stretching and will continue doing so forever, [68] but some regions of space stop stretching and form distinct bubbles (like gas pockets in a loaf of rising bread). Such bubbles are embryonic level I multiverses.

Different bubbles may experience different spontaneous symmetry breaking, which results in different properties, such as different physical constants. [67]

Level II also includes John Archibald Wheeler's oscillatory universe theory and Lee Smolin's fecund universes theory.

Level III: Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics

Schrodinger's cat in the many-worlds interpretation, where a branching of the universe occurs through a superposition of two quantum mechanical states Schroedingers cat film.svg
Schrödinger's cat in the many-worlds interpretation, where a branching of the universe occurs through a superposition of two quantum mechanical states

Hugh Everett III's many-worlds interpretation (MWI) is one of several mainstream interpretations of quantum mechanics.

In brief, one aspect of quantum mechanics is that certain observations cannot be predicted absolutely. Instead, there is a range of possible observations, each with a different probability. According to the MWI, each of these possible observations corresponds to a different "world" within the Universal wavefunction, with each world as real as ours. Suppose a six-sided dice is thrown and that the result of the throw corresponds to observable quantum mechanics. All six possible ways the dice can fall correspond to six different worlds. In the case of the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment, both outcomes would be "real" in at least one "world".

Tegmark argues that a Level III multiverse does not contain more possibilities in the Hubble volume than a Level I or Level II multiverse. In effect, all the different worlds created by "splits" in a Level III multiverse with the same physical constants can be found in some Hubble volume in a Level I multiverse. Tegmark writes that, "The only difference between Level I and Level III is where your doppelgängers reside. In Level I they live elsewhere in good old three-dimensional space. In Level III they live on another quantum branch in infinite-dimensional Hilbert space."

Similarly, all Level II bubble universes with different physical constants can, in effect, be found as "worlds" created by "splits" at the moment of spontaneous symmetry breaking in a Level III multiverse. [67] According to Yasunori Nomura, [37] Raphael Bousso, and Leonard Susskind, [35] this is because global spacetime appearing in the (eternally) inflating multiverse is a redundant concept. This implies that the multiverses of Levels I, II, and III are, in fact, the same thing. This hypothesis is referred to as "Multiverse = Quantum Many Worlds". According to Yasunori Nomura, this quantum multiverse is static, and time is a simple illusion. [69]

Another version of the many-worlds idea is H. Dieter Zeh's many-minds interpretation.

Level IV: Ultimate ensemble

The ultimate mathematical universe hypothesis is Tegmark's own hypothesis. [70]

This level considers all universes to be equally real which can be described by different mathematical structures.

Tegmark writes:

Abstract mathematics is so general that any Theory Of Everything (TOE) which is definable in purely formal terms (independent of vague human terminology) is also a mathematical structure. For instance, a TOE involving a set of different types of entities (denoted by words, say) and relations between them (denoted by additional words) is nothing but what mathematicians call a set-theoretical model, and one can generally find a formal system that it is a model of.

He argues that this "implies that any conceivable parallel universe theory can be described at Level IV" and "subsumes all other ensembles, therefore brings closure to the hierarchy of multiverses, and there cannot be, say, a Level V." [30]

Jürgen Schmidhuber, however, says that the set of mathematical structures is not even well-defined and that it admits only universe representations describable by constructive mathematics—that is, computer programs.

Schmidhuber explicitly includes universe representations describable by non-halting programs whose output bits converge after a finite time, although the convergence time itself may not be predictable by a halting program, due to the undecidability of the halting problem. [71] [72] [73] He also explicitly discusses the more restricted ensemble of quickly computable universes. [74]

Brian Greene's nine types

The American theoretical physicist and string theorist Brian Greene discussed nine types of multiverses: [75]

Quilted
The quilted multiverse works only in an infinite universe. With an infinite amount of space, every possible event will occur an infinite number of times. However, the speed of light prevents us from being aware of these other identical areas.
Inflationary
The inflationary multiverse is composed of various pockets in which inflation fields collapse and form new universes.
Animation showing the multiple brane universes in the bulk
Brane
The brane multiverse version postulates that our entire universe exists on a membrane (brane) which floats in a higher dimension or "bulk". In this bulk, there are other membranes with their own universes. These universes can interact with one another, and when they collide, the violence and energy produced is more than enough to give rise to a Big Bang. The branes float or drift near each other in the bulk, and every few trillion years, attracted by gravity or some other force we do not understand, collide and bang into each other. This repeated contact gives rise to multiple or "cyclic" Big Bangs. This particular hypothesis falls under the string theory umbrella as it requires extra spatial dimensions.
Cosmos animation of a cyclic universe Cosmos-animation Friedmann-closed.gif
Cosmos animation of a cyclic universe
Cyclic
The cyclic multiverse has multiple branes that have collided, causing Big Bangs. The universes bounce back and pass through time until they are pulled back together and again collide, destroying the old contents and creating them anew.
Landscape
The landscape multiverse relies on string theory's Calabi–Yau spaces. Quantum fluctuations drop the shapes to a lower energy level, creating a pocket with a set of laws different from that of the surrounding space.
Quantum
The quantum multiverse creates a new universe when a diversion in events occurs, as in the real-worlds variant of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.
Holographic
The holographic multiverse is derived from the theory that the surface area of a space can encode the contents of the volume of the region.
Simulated
The simulated multiverse exists on complex computer systems that simulate entire universes. A related hypothesis, as put forward as a possibility by astronomer Avi Loeb, is that universes may be creatable in laboratories of advanced technological civilizations who have a theory of everything. [76] Other related hypotheses include brain in a vat [77] -type scenarios where the perceived universe is either simulated in a low-resource way or not perceived directly by the virtual/simulated inhabitant species.[ additional citation(s) needed ]
Ultimate
The ultimate multiverse contains every mathematically possible universe under different laws of physics.

Twin-world models

Concept of a twin universe, with the beginning (of time) in the middle Universe Antiuniverse model.png
Concept of a twin universe, with the beginning (of time) in the middle

There are models of two related universes that e.g. attempt to explain the baryon asymmetry – why there was more matter than antimatter at the beginning – with a mirror anti-universe. [78] [79] [80] One two-universe cosmological model could explain the Hubble constant (H0) tension via interactions between the two worlds. The "mirror world" would contain copies of all existing fundamental particles. [81] [82] Another twin/pair-world or "bi-world" cosmology is shown to theoretically be able to solve the cosmological constant (Λ) problem, closely related to dark energy: two interacting worlds with a large Λ each could result in a small shared effective Λ. [83] [84] [85]

Cyclic theories

In several theories, there is a series of, in some cases infinite, self-sustaining cycles – typically a series of Big Crunches (or Big Bounces). However, the respective universes do not exist at once but are forming or following in a logical order or sequence, with key natural constituents potentially varying between universes (see § Anthropic principle).

M-theory

A multiverse of a somewhat different kind has been envisaged within string theory and its higher-dimensional extension, M-theory. [86]

These theories require the presence of 10 or 11 spacetime dimensions respectively. The extra six or seven dimensions may either be compactified on a very small scale, or our universe may simply be localized on a dynamical (3+1)-dimensional object, a D3-brane. This opens up the possibility that there are other branes which could support other universes. [87] [88]

Black-hole cosmology

Black-hole cosmology is a cosmological model in which the observable universe is the interior of a black hole existing as one of possibly many universes inside a larger universe. [89] This includes the theory of white holes, which are on the opposite side of space-time.

Anthropic principle

The concept of other universes has been proposed to explain how our own universe appears to be fine-tuned for conscious life as we experience it.

If there were a large (possibly infinite) number of universes, each with possibly different physical laws (or different fundamental physical constants), then some of these universes (even if very few) would have the combination of laws and fundamental parameters that are suitable for the development of matter, astronomical structures, elemental diversity, stars, and planets that can exist long enough for life to emerge and evolve.

The weak anthropic principle could then be applied to conclude that we (as conscious beings) would only exist in one of those few universes that happened to be finely tuned, permitting the existence of life with developed consciousness. Thus, while the probability might be extremely small that any particular universe would have the requisite conditions for life (as we understand life), those conditions do not require intelligent design as an explanation for the conditions in the Universe that promote our existence in it.

An early form of this reasoning is evident in Arthur Schopenhauer's 1844 work "Von der Nichtigkeit und dem Leiden des Lebens", where he argues that our world must be the worst of all possible worlds, because if it were significantly worse in any respect it could not continue to exist. [90]

Occam's razor

Proponents and critics disagree about how to apply Occam's razor. Critics argue that to postulate an almost infinite number of unobservable universes, just to explain our own universe, is contrary to Occam's razor. [91] However, proponents argue that in terms of Kolmogorov complexity the proposed multiverse is simpler than a single idiosyncratic universe. [67]

For example, multiverse proponent Max Tegmark argues:

[A]n entire ensemble is often much simpler than one of its members. This principle can be stated more formally using the notion of algorithmic information content. The algorithmic information content in a number is, roughly speaking, the length of the shortest computer program that will produce that number as output. For example, consider the set of all integers. Which is simpler, the whole set or just one number? Naively, you might think that a single number is simpler, but the entire set can be generated by quite a trivial computer program, whereas a single number can be hugely long. Therefore, the whole set is actually simpler... (Similarly), the higher-level multiverses are simpler. Going from our universe to the Level I multiverse eliminates the need to specify initial conditions, upgrading to Level II eliminates the need to specify physical constants, and the Level IV multiverse eliminates the need to specify anything at all... A common feature of all four multiverse levels is that the simplest and arguably most elegant theory involves parallel universes by default. To deny the existence of those universes, one needs to complicate the theory by adding experimentally unsupported processes and ad hoc postulates: finite space, wave function collapse and ontological asymmetry. Our judgment therefore comes down to which we find more wasteful and inelegant: many worlds or many words. Perhaps we will gradually get used to the weird ways of our cosmos and find its strangeness to be part of its charm. [67] [92]

— Max Tegmark

Possible worlds and real worlds

In any given set of possible universes – e.g. in terms of histories or variables of nature – not all may be ever realized, and some may be realized many times. [93] For example, over infinite time there could, in some potential theories, be infinite universes, but only a small or relatively small real number of universes where humanity could exist and only one where it ever does exist (with a unique history).[ citation needed ] It has been suggested that a universe that "contains life, in the form it has on Earth, is in a certain sense radically non-ergodic, in that the vast majority of possible organisms will never be realized". [94] On the other hand, some scientists, theories and popular works conceive of a multiverse in which the universes are so similar that humanity exists in many equally real separate universes but with varying histories. [95]

There is a debate about whether the other worlds are real in the many-worlds interpretation (MWI) of quantum mechanics. In Quantum Darwinism one does not need to adopt a MWI in which all of the branches are equally real. [96]

Possible worlds are a way of explaining probability and hypothetical statements. Some philosophers, such as David Lewis, posit that all possible worlds exist and that they are just as real as the world we live in. This position is known as modal realism. [97]

See also

Related Research Articles

The anthropic principle, also known as the observation selection effect, is the hypothesis that the range of possible observations that could be made about the universe is limited by the fact that observations are only possible in the type of universe that is capable of developing intelligent life. Proponents of the anthropic principle argue that it explains why the universe has the age and the fundamental physical constants necessary to accommodate intelligent life. If either had been significantly different, no one would have been around to make observations. Anthropic reasoning has been used to address the question as to why certain measured physical constants take the values that they do, rather than some other arbitrary values, and to explain a perception that the universe appears to be finely tuned for the existence of life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Big Bang</span> Physical theory

The Big Bang is a physical theory that describes how the universe expanded from an initial state of high density and temperature. The notion of an expanding universe was first scientifically originated by physicist Alexander Friedmann in 1922 with the mathematical derivation of the Friedmann equations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical cosmology</span> Branch of cosmology which studies mathematical models of the universe

Physical cosmology is a branch of cosmology concerned with the study of cosmological models. A cosmological model, or simply cosmology, provides a description of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and allows study of fundamental questions about its origin, structure, evolution, and ultimate fate. Cosmology as a science originated with the Copernican principle, which implies that celestial bodies obey identical physical laws to those on Earth, and Newtonian mechanics, which first allowed those physical laws to be understood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cosmic inflation</span> Theory of rapid universe expansion

In physical cosmology, cosmic inflation, cosmological inflation, or just inflation, is a theory of exponential expansion of space in the very early universe. Following the inflationary period, the universe continued to expand, but at a slower rate. The re-acceleration of this slowing expansion due to dark energy began after the universe was already over 7.7 billion years old.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Many-worlds interpretation</span> Interpretation of quantum mechanics

The many-worlds interpretation (MWI) is an interpretation of quantum mechanics that asserts that the universal wavefunction is objectively real, and that there is no wave function collapse. This implies that all possible outcomes of quantum measurements are physically realized in some "world". The evolution of reality as a whole in MWI is rigidly deterministic and local. Many-worlds is also called the relative state formulation or the Everett interpretation, after physicist Hugh Everett, who first proposed it in 1957. Bryce DeWitt popularized the formulation and named it many-worlds in the 1970s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Universe</span> Everything in space and time

The universe is all of space and time and their contents. It comprises all of existence, any fundamental interaction, physical process and physical constant, and therefore all forms of matter and energy, and the structures they form, from sub-atomic particles to entire galactic filaments. Since the early 20th century, the field of cosmology establishes that space and time emerged together in the Big Bang 13.787±0.020 billion years ago and that the universe subsequently expanded. Today the universe has expanded into an age and size that is physically only part of the observable universe, currently about 93 billion light-years in diameter, while the spatial size of the entire universe is by definition unknown and theorized to be possibly infinite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cosmological constant</span> Constant representing stress–energy density of the vacuum

In cosmology, the cosmological constant, alternatively called Einstein's cosmological constant, is a coefficient that Albert Einstein initially added to his field equations of general relativity. He later removed it; however, much later it was revived to express the energy density of space, or vacuum energy, that arises in quantum mechanics. It is closely associated with the concept of dark energy.

The ekpyrotic universe is a cosmological model of the early universe that explains the origin of the large-scale structure of the cosmos. The model has also been incorporated in the cyclic universe theory, which proposes a complete cosmological history, both the past and future.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Max Tegmark</span> Swedish-American cosmologist

Max Erik Tegmark is a Swedish-American physicist, machine learning researcher and author. He is best known for his book Life 3.0 about what the world might look like as artificial intelligence continues to improve. Tegmark is a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the president of the Future of Life Institute.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ultimate fate of the universe</span> Theories about the end of the universe

The ultimate fate of the universe is a topic in physical cosmology, whose theoretical restrictions allow possible scenarios for the evolution and ultimate fate of the universe to be described and evaluated. Based on available observational evidence, deciding the fate and evolution of the universe has become a valid cosmological question, being beyond the mostly untestable constraints of mythological or theological beliefs. Several possible futures have been predicted by different scientific hypotheses, including that the universe might have existed for a finite and infinite duration, or towards explaining the manner and circumstances of its beginning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fine-tuned universe</span> Hypothesis about life in the universe

The characterization of the universe as finely tuned intends to explain why the known constants of nature, such as the electron charge, the gravitational constant, and the like, have their measured values rather than some other arbitrary values. According to the "fine-tuned universe" hypothesis, if these constants' values were too different from what they are, "life as we know it" could not exist. In practice, this hypothesis is formulated in terms of dimensionless physical constants.

In physics and cosmology, the mathematical universe hypothesis (MUH), also known as the ultimate ensemble theory, is a speculative "theory of everything" (TOE) proposed by cosmologist Max Tegmark. According to the hypothesis, the universe is a mathematical object in and of itself. Tegmark extends this idea to hypothesize that all mathematical objects exist, which he describes as a form of Platonism or Modal realism.

In string theory, the string theory landscape is the collection of possible false vacua, together comprising a collective "landscape" of choices of parameters governing compactifications.

Eternal inflation is a hypothetical inflationary universe model, which is itself an outgrowth or extension of the Big Bang theory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boltzmann brain</span> Philosophical thought experiment

The Boltzmann brain thought experiment suggests that it might be more likely for a brain to spontaneously form in space, complete with a memory of having existed in our universe, rather than for the entire universe to come about in the manner cosmologists think it actually did. Physicists use the Boltzmann brain thought experiment as a reductio ad absurdum argument for evaluating competing scientific theories.

The possibility that there might be more than one dimension of time has occasionally been discussed in physics and philosophy. Similar ideas appear in folklore and fantasy literature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cosmological constant problem</span> Concept in cosmology

In cosmology, the cosmological constant problem or vacuum catastrophe is the substantial disagreement between the observed values of vacuum energy density and the much larger theoretical value of zero-point energy suggested by quantum field theory.

<i>Our Mathematical Universe</i> 2014 book by Max Tegmark

Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality is a 2014 nonfiction book by the Swedish-American cosmologist Max Tegmark. Written in popular science format, the book interweaves what a New York Times reviewer called "an informative survey of exciting recent developments in astrophysics and quantum theory" with Tegmark's mathematical universe hypothesis, which posits that reality is a mathematical structure. This mathematical nature of the universe, Tegmark argues, has important consequences for the way researchers should approach many questions of physics.

The measure problem in cosmology concerns how to compute the ratios of universes of different types within a multiverse. It typically arises in the context of eternal inflation. The problem arises because different approaches to calculating these ratios yield different results, and it is not clear which approach is correct.

References

Footnotes

  1. ↑ In some models, such as those of brane cosmology, many parallel structures may exist within the same universe.

Citations

  1. ↑ "We are closer than ever to finally proving the multiverse exists" . New Scientist. Retrieved 18 July 2024.
  2. ↑ Swain, Frank (2017). The Universe Next Door: A Journey Through 55 Alternative Realities, Parallel Worlds and Possible Futures. London: New Scientist. p. 12. ISBN   9781473658677.
  3. ↑ Tarán, Leonardo (1987), "The Text of Simplicius' Commentary on Aristotle's Physics", Simplicius. Sa vie, son oeuvre, sa survie, Berlin, Germany; Boston, Massachusetts: DE GRUYTER, doi:10.1515/9783110862041.246, ISBN   9783110862041 , retrieved 21 September 2022
  4. ↑ Kočandrle, Radim (December 2019). "Infinite Worlds in the Thought of Anaximander". The Classical Quarterly. 69 (2): 483–500. doi:10.1017/S000983882000004X. ISSN   0009-8388. S2CID   216169543.
  5. ↑ Gregory, Andrew (25 February 2016). Anaximander: A Re-assessment. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 121. ISBN   978-1-4725-0625-2.
  6. ↑ Curd, Patricia; Graham, Daniel W. (27 October 2008). The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 239–241. ISBN   978-0-19-972244-0.
  7. 1 2 Hatleback, Eric Nelson (2014). Chimera of the Cosmos (PDF) (PhD). Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh.
  8. ↑ Siegfried, Tom (17 September 2019). The Number of the Heavens: A History of the Multiverse and the Quest to Understand the Cosmos. Harvard University Press. pp. 51–61. ISBN   978-0-674-97588-0. "In some worlds there is no sun and moon, in others they are larger than in our world, and in others more numerous. The intervals between the worlds are unequal; in some parts there are more worlds, in others fewer; some are increasing, some at their height, some decreasing; in some parts they are arising, in others falling. They are destroyed by collision one with another. There are some worlds devoid of living creatures or plants or any moisture." ... Only an infinite number of atoms could have created the complexity of the known world by their random motions... In this sense, the atomist-multiverse theory of antiquity presents a striking parallel to the situation in science today. The Greek atomists' theory of the ultimate nature of matter on the smallest scales implied the existence of multiple universes on cosmic scales. Modern science's most popular attempt to describe the fundamental nature of matter—superstring theory—also turns out (much to the theorists' surprise) to imply a vast multiplicity of vacuum states, essentially the same thing as predicting the existence of a multiverse.
  9. ↑ Dick, Steven J. (29 June 1984). Plurality of Words: The Extraterrestrial Life Debate from Democritus to Kant. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–10. ISBN   978-0-521-31985-0. Why should other worlds have become the subject of scientific discourse, when they were neither among the phenomena demanding explanation?... it derived from the cosmogonic assumption of ancient atomism: the belief that the constituent bodies of the cosmos are formed by the chance coalescence of moving atoms, the same type of indivisible particles of which matter on Earth was composed... Given the occurrence of these natural processes, and the obvious example of potential stability revealed in our own finite world, it was not unreasonable to suppose the existence of other stable conglomerations. The atomists further employed the principle that when causes were present, effects must occur.6 Atoms were the agents of causality and their number was infinite. The effect was innumerable worlds in formation, in collision, and in decay."
  10. ↑ Rubenstein, Mary-Jane (11 February 2014). "Ancient Openings of Multiplicity". Worlds Without End: The Many Lives of the Multiverse. Columbia University Press. pp. 40–69. ISBN   978-0-231-15662-2.
  11. 1 2 Sedacca, Matthew (30 January 2017). "The Multiverse Is an Ancient Idea". Nautilus. Retrieved 4 December 2022. The earliest hints of the multiverse are found in two ancient Greek schools of thought, the Atomists and the Stoics. The Atomists, whose philosophy dates to the fifth century B.C., argued that that the order and beauty of our world was the accidental product of atoms colliding in an infinite void. The atomic collisions also give rise to an endless number of other, parallel worlds less perfect than our own.
  12. ↑ Siegfried, Tom (2019). "Long Live the Multiverse!". Scientific American Blog Network. Leucippus and Democritus believed that their atomic theory required an infinity of worlds... Their later follower, Epicurus of Samos, also professed the reality of multiple worlds. "There are infinite worlds both like and unlike this world of ours"...
  13. ↑ James, William, The Will to Believe, 1895; and earlier in 1895, as cited in OED's new 2003 entry for "multiverse": James, William (October 1895), "Is Life Worth Living?", Int. J. Ethics, 6 (1): 10, doi:10.1086/205378, Visible nature is all plasticity and indifference, a multiverse, as one might call it, and not a universe.
  14. ↑ Ćirković, Milan M. (6 March 2019). "Stranger things: multiverse, string cosmology, physical eschatology". In Kragh, Helge; Longair, Malcolm (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Modern Cosmology. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-254997-6.
  15. ↑ "Erwin Schrödinger and the Quantum Revolution by John Gribbin: review". The Telegraph. 5 April 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
  16. ↑ Romeo, Jess (7 January 2022). "The Real Science of the Multiverse". JSTOR Daily. JSTOR . Retrieved 15 July 2023.
  17. ↑ "Astronomers Find First Evidence Of Other Universe". technologyreview.com. 13 December 2010. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
  18. ↑ Tegmark, Max; Vilenkin, Alexander (19 July 2011). "The Case for Parallel Universes". Scientific American . Retrieved 12 October 2013.
  19. ↑ "Is Our Universe Inside a Bubble? First Observational Test of the 'Multiverse'". Science Daily. sciencedaily.com. 3 August 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
  20. ↑ Feeney, Stephen M.; et al. (2011). "First observational tests of eternal inflation: Analysis methods and WMAP 7-year results". Physical Review D. 84 (4): 43507. arXiv: 1012.3667 . Bibcode:2011PhRvD..84d3507F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.84.043507. S2CID   43793857.
  21. ↑ Feeney; et al. (2011). "First observational tests of eternal inflation". Physical Review Letters. 107 (7): 071301. arXiv: 1012.1995 . Bibcode:2011PhRvL.107g1301F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.071301. PMID   21902380. S2CID   23560957.. Bousso, Raphael; Harlow, Daniel; Senatore, Leonardo (2015). "Inflation after False Vacuum Decay: Observational Prospects after Planck". Physical Review D. 91 (8): 083527. arXiv: 1309.4060 . Bibcode:2015PhRvD..91h3527B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.91.083527. S2CID   118488797.
  22. ↑ Collaboration, Planck; Ade, P. A. R.; Aghanim, N.; Arnaud, M.; Ashdown, M.; Aumont, J.; Baccigalupi, C.; Balbi, A.; Banday, A. J.; Barreiro, R. B.; Battaner, E.; Benabed, K.; Benoit-Levy, A.; Bernard, J. -P.; Bersanelli, M.; Bielewicz, P.; Bikmaev, I.; Bobin, J.; Bock, J. J.; Bonaldi, A.; Bond, J. R.; Borrill, J.; Bouchet, F. R.; Burigana, C.; Butler, R. C.; Cabella, P.; Cardoso, J. -F.; Catalano, A.; Chamballu, A.; et al. (20 March 2013). "Planck intermediate results. XIII. Constraints on peculiar velocities". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 561: A97. arXiv: 1303.5090 . Bibcode:2014A&A...561A..97P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321299. S2CID   2745526.
  23. ↑ "Blow for 'dark flow' in Planck's new view of the cosmos". New Scientist . 3 April 2013. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
  24. 1 2 "Study may have found evidence of alternate, parallel universes". www.usatoday.com. por Doyle Rice, "USA Today" (2015).
  25. 1 2 3 "Cosmologist thinks a strange signal may be evidence of a parallel universe". phys.org. por Vanessa Janek, "Universe Today" (2015).
  26. ↑ Smolin, Lee. The Life of the Cosmos. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195126648.
  27. ↑ Page, Don (8 March 2018). "Does God exist in the multiverse?".
  28. ↑ Greene, Brian (24 January 2011). "A Physicist Explains Why Parallel Universes May Exist". npr.org (Interview). Interviewed by Terry Gross. Archived from the original on 13 September 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
  29. ↑ Greene, Brian (24 January 2011). "Transcript:A Physicist Explains Why Parallel Universes May Exist". npr.org (Interview). Interviewed by Terry Gross. Archived from the original on 13 September 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
  30. 1 2 3 Tegmark, Max (2003). "Parallel Universes". Scientific American. 288 (5): 40–51. arXiv: astro-ph/0302131 . Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID   12701329.
  31. ↑ Guth, Alan (May 2014). "Inflationary Cosmology: Is Our Universe Part of a Multiverse?". YouTube. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
  32. ↑ Linde, Andrei (27 January 2012). "Inflation in Supergravity and String Theory: Brief History of the Multiverse" (PDF). ctc.cam.ac.uk. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
  33. ↑ Kaku, Michio. "e-reading.ws" (PDF). www.e-reading.ws.
  34. ↑ David Deutsch (1997). "The Ends of the Universe". The Fabric of Reality: The Science of Parallel Universes—and Its Implications. London, England: Penguin Press. ISBN   0-7139-9061-9.
  35. 1 2 Bousso, Raphael; Susskind, Leonard (2012). "Multiverse interpretation of quantum mechanics". Physical Review D. 85 (4): 045007. arXiv: 1105.3796 . Bibcode:2012PhRvD..85d5007B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.85.045007. S2CID   118507872.
  36. ↑ Vilenkin, Alex (2007). Many Worlds in One: The Search for Other Universes. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN   9780374707149.
  37. 1 2 Nomura, Yasunori (2011). "Physical theories, eternal inflation, and the quantum universe". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2011 (11): 63. arXiv: 1104.2324 . Bibcode:2011JHEP...11..063N. doi:10.1007/JHEP11(2011)063. S2CID   119283262.
  38. ↑ Pathria, R. K. (1972). "The Universe as a Black Hole". Nature. 240 (5379): 298–299. Bibcode:1972Natur.240..298P. doi:10.1038/240298a0. S2CID   4282253.
  39. ↑ Fox, Killian (27 August 2022). "Cosmologist Laura Mersini-Houghton: 'Our universe is one tiny grain of dust in a beautiful cosmos' – Interview". The Guardian . Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  40. ↑ Freeman, David (4 March 2014). "Why Revive 'Cosmos?' Neil DeGrasse Tyson Says Just About Everything We Know Has Changed". huffingtonpost.com. Archived from the original on 13 September 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
  41. ↑ Carroll, Sean (18 October 2011). "Welcome to the Multiverse". Discover . Retrieved 5 May 2015.
  42. ↑ Carr, Bernard (21 June 2007). Universe or Multiverse. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN   9780521848411. Some physicists would prefer to believe that string theory, or M-theory, will answer these questions and uniquely predict the features of the Universe. Others adopt the view that the initial state of the Universe is prescribed by an outside agency, code-named God, or that there are many universes, with ours being picked out by the anthropic principle. Hawking argued that string theory is unlikely to predict the distinctive features of the Universe. But neither is he is an advocate of God. He therefore opts for the last approach, favoring the type of multiverse which arises naturally within the context of his own work in quantum cosmology.
  43. ↑ Geek's Guide to the Galaxy (9 September 2022). "Have Some Scientists Gotten Too Excited About the Multiverse?". Wired. Wired. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
  44. ↑ Davies, Paul (2008). "Many Scientists Hate the Multiverse Idea". The Goldilocks Enigma: Why Is the Universe Just Right for Life?. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 207. ISBN   9780547348469.
  45. ↑ Steinhardt, Paul (9 March 2014). "Theories of Anything". edge.org. 2014 : WHAT SCIENTIFIC IDEA IS READY FOR RETIREMENT?. Archived from the original on 10 March 2014. Retrieved 9 March 2014. Theories of Anything
    A pervasive idea in fundamental physics and cosmology that should be retired: the notion that we live in a multiverse in which the laws of physics and the properties of the cosmos vary randomly from one patch of space to another
  46. 1 2 3 Ijjas, Anna; Loeb, Abraham; Steinhardt, Paul (February 2017), "Cosmic Inflation Theory Faces Challenges", Scientific American, 316 (2): 32–39, doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0217-32, PMID   28118351 .
  47. ↑ "Is Nature Simple? 2018 Breakthrough Prize Symposium Panel". YouTube. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
  48. ↑ Gibbons, G. W.; Turok, Neil (2008). "The Measure Problem in Cosmology". Physical Review D. 77 (6): 063516. arXiv: hep-th/0609095 . Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77f3516G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.063516. S2CID   16394385.
  49. ↑ Mukhanov, Viatcheslav (2014). "Inflation without Selfreproduction". Fortschritte der Physik. 63 (1): 36–41. arXiv: 1409.2335 . Bibcode:2015ForPh..63...36M. doi:10.1002/prop.201400074. S2CID   117514254.
  50. ↑ Woit, Peter (9 June 2015). "A Crisis at the (Western) Edge of Physics". Not Even Wrong .
  51. ↑ Woit, Peter (14 June 2015). "CMB @ 50". Not Even Wrong .
  52. ↑ Ellis, George F. R. (1 August 2011). "Does the Multiverse Really Exist?" . Scientific American . 305 (2): 38–43. Bibcode:2011SciAm.305a..38E. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0811-38. PMID   21827123 . Retrieved 12 September 2014.
  53. ↑ Ellis, George (2012). "The Multiverse: Conjecture, Proof, and Science" (PDF). Slides for a talk at Nicolai Fest Golm 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
  54. ↑ Ellis, George; Silk, Joe (16 December 2014), "Scientific Method: Defend the Integrity of Physics", Nature, 516 (7531): 321–323, Bibcode:2014Natur.516..321E, doi: 10.1038/516321a , PMID   25519115
  55. ↑ Scoles, Sarah (19 April 2016), "Can Physics Ever Prove the Multiverse is Real", Smithsonian.com.
  56. 1 2 Frank, Adam; Gleiser, Marcelo (5 June 2015). "A Crisis at the Edge of Physics". The New York Times .
  57. ↑ Baggott, Jim (1 August 2013). Farewell to Reality: How Modern Physics Has Betrayed the Search for Scientific Truth . Pegasus. ISBN   978-1-60598-472-8.
  58. ↑ Davies, Paul (12 April 2003). "A Brief History of the Multiverse". The New York Times .
  59. ↑ Davies, Paul (12 April 2003). "A Brief History of the Multiverse". New York Times. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
  60. ↑ Ellis, George F. R. (1 August 2011). "Does the Multiverse Really Exist?" . Scientific American . Vol. 305, no. 2. pp. 38–43. Bibcode:2011SciAm.305a..38E. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0811-38 . Retrieved 16 August 2011.
  61. ↑ Goff, Philip. "Our Improbable Existence Is No Evidence for a Multiverse". Scientific American.
  62. ↑ Stoeger, W. R.; Ellis, G. F. R.; Kirchner, U. (19 January 2006). "Multiverses and Cosmology: Philosophical Issues". arXiv: astro-ph/0407329 .
  63. ↑ Siegel, Ethan (22 May 2020). "Ask Ethan: Have We Finally Found Evidence For A Parallel Universe?". Forbes . Retrieved 18 September 2020.
  64. ↑ "Multiverse Theories Are Bad for Science". Scientific American .
  65. ↑ Tegmark, Max (May 2003). "Parallel Universes". Scientific American. 288 (5): 40–51. arXiv: astro-ph/0302131 . Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID   12701329.
  66. ↑ Tegmark, Max (23 January 2003). Parallel Universes (PDF). Retrieved 7 February 2006.
  67. 1 2 3 4 5 "Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations.", Tegmark, Max, Scientific American. May 2003; 288 (5): 40–51.
  68. ↑ "First Second of the Big Bang". How The Universe Works 3 . 2014. Discovery Science.
  69. ↑ Nomura, Yasunori; Johnson, Matthew C.; Mortlock, Daniel J.; Peiris, Hiranya V. (2012). "Static quantum multiverse". Physical Review D. 86 (8): 083505. arXiv: 1205.5550 . Bibcode:2012PhRvD..86h3505N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.86.083505. S2CID   119207079.
  70. ↑ Tegmark, Max (2014). Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN   9780307599803.
  71. ↑ J. Schmidhuber (1997): A Computer Scientist's View of Life, the Universe, and Everything. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 201–208, Springer: IDSIA – Dalle Molle Institute for Artificial Intelligence.
  72. ↑ Schmidhuber, Juergen (2000). "Algorithmic Theories of Everything". arXiv: quant-ph/0011122 .
  73. ↑ J. Schmidhuber (2002): Hierarchies of generalized Kolmogorov complexities and nonenumerable universal measures computable in the limit. International Journal of Foundations of Computer Science 13 (4): 587–612. IDSIA – Dalle Molle Institute for Artificial Intelligence.
  74. ↑ J. Schmidhuber (2002): The Speed Prior: A New Simplicity Measure Yielding Near-Optimal Computable Predictions. Proc. 15th Annual Conference on Computational Learning Theory (COLT 2002), Sydney, Australia, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, pp. 216–228. Springer: IDSIA – Dalle Molle Institute for Artificial Intelligence.
  75. ↑ Greene, Brian. The Hidden Reality: Parallel Universes and the Deep Laws of the Cosmos , 2011.
  76. ↑ Loeb, Avi (December 2021). "Was Our Universe Created in a Laboratory?". Scientific American. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
  77. ↑ "What if we're living in a computer simulation?". The Guardian. 22 April 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
  78. ↑ "Our universe has antimatter partner on the other side of the Big Bang, say physicists". Physics World. 3 January 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  79. ↑ Letzter, Rafi (23 June 2020). "Why some physicists really think there's a 'mirror universe' hiding in space-time". Space.com. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  80. ↑ Boyle, Latham; Finn, Kieran; Turok, Neil (20 December 2018). "CPT-Symmetric Universe". Physical Review Letters. 121 (25): 251301. arXiv: 1803.08928 . Bibcode:2018PhRvL.121y1301B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.251301. PMID   30608856. S2CID   58638592.
  81. ↑ "Mirror world of dark particles could explain cosmic anomaly". Physics World. 31 May 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  82. ↑ Cyr-Racine, Francis-Yan; Ge, Fei; Knox, Lloyd (18 May 2022). "Symmetry of Cosmological Observables, a Mirror World Dark Sector, and the Hubble Constant". Physical Review Letters. 128 (20): 201301. arXiv: 2107.13000 . Bibcode:2022PhRvL.128t1301C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.128.201301. PMID   35657861. S2CID   248904936.
  83. ↑ Bedford, Bailey. "Bilayer graphene inspires two-universe cosmological model". Joint Quantum Institute. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  84. ↑ Parhizkar, Alireza; Galitski, Victor (2 May 2022). "Strained bilayer graphene, emergent energy scales, and moir\'e gravity". Physical Review Research. 4 (2): L022027. arXiv: 2108.04252 . Bibcode:2022PhRvR...4b2027P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevResearch.4.L022027. S2CID   236965490.
  85. ↑ Parhizkar, Alireza; Galitski, Victor (2022). "Moiré Gravity and Cosmology". arXiv: 2204.06574 [hep-th].
  86. ↑ Weinberg, Steven (2005). "Living in the Multiverse". arXiv: hep-th/0511037v1 .
  87. ↑ Richard J. Szabo, An introduction to string theory and D-brane dynamics (2004).
  88. ↑ Maurizio Gasperini, Elements of String Cosmology (2007).
  89. ↑ Pathria, R. K. (1 December 1972). "The Universe as a Black Hole". Nature. 240 (5379): 298–299. Bibcode:1972Natur.240..298P. doi:10.1038/240298a0. ISSN   0028-0836. S2CID   4282253.
  90. ↑ Arthur Schopenhauer, "Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung" (in German), supplement to the 4th book "Von der Nichtigkeit und dem Leiden des Lebens" (in German). see also R. B. Haldane and J. Kemp's translation "On the Vanity and Suffering of Life", pp. 395–396.
  91. ↑ Trinh, Xuan Thuan (2006). Staune, Jean (ed.). Science & the Search for Meaning: Perspectives from International Scientists. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Templeton Foundation. p. 186. ISBN   978-1-59947-102-0.
  92. ↑ Tegmark, M. (May 2003). "Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations". Scientific American. 288 (5): 40–51. arXiv: astro-ph/0302131 . Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID   12701329.
  93. ↑ Ellis, G. F. R.; Kirchner, U.; Stoeger, W. R. (21 January 2004). "Multiverses and physical cosmology". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 347 (3): 921–936. arXiv: astro-ph/0305292 . Bibcode:2004MNRAS.347..921E. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07261.x . S2CID   119028830.
  94. ↑ Cortês, Marina; Kauffman, Stuart A.; Liddle, Andrew R.; Smolin, Lee (28 April 2022). "Biocosmology: Biology from a cosmological perspective". arXiv: 2204.09379 [physics.hist-ph].
  95. ↑ "What is the multiverse—and is there any evidence it really exists?". Science. 4 May 2022. Archived from the original on 4 May 2022. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
  96. ↑ Zurek, Wojciech Hubert (13 July 2018). "Quantum theory of the classical: quantum jumps, Born's Rule and objective classical reality via quantum Darwinism". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 376 (2123): 20180107. arXiv: 1807.02092 . Bibcode:2018RSPTA.37680107Z. doi:10.1098/rsta.2018.0107. PMC   5990654 . PMID   29807905.
  97. ↑ Lewis, David (1986). On the Plurality of Worlds. Basil Blackwell. ISBN   978-0-631-22426-6.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.