Carbon-12

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Carbon-12, 12C
Carbon-12.svg
General
Symbol 12C
Names carbon-12, 12C, C-12
Protons (Z)6
Neutrons (N)6
Nuclide data
Natural abundance 98.93%
Isotope mass 12 Da
Spin 0
Excess energy 0.0 keV
Binding energy 92161.753±0.014 keV
Parent isotopes 12N
12B
Isotopes of carbon
Complete table of nuclides

Carbon-12 (12C) is the most abundant of the two stable isotopes of carbon (carbon-13 being the other), amounting to 98.93% of element carbon on Earth; [1] its abundance is due to the triple-alpha process by which it is created in stars. Carbon-12 is of particular importance in its use as the standard from which atomic masses of all nuclides are measured, thus, its atomic mass is exactly 12 daltons by definition. Carbon-12 is composed of 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons.

Contents

History

Before 1959, both the IUPAP and IUPAC used oxygen to define the mole; the chemists defining the mole as the number of atoms of oxygen which had mass 16 g, the physicists using a similar definition but with the oxygen-16 isotope only. The two organizations agreed in 1959–60 to define the mole as follows.

Mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 12 gram of carbon 12; its symbol is "mol".

This was adopted by the CIPM (International Committee for Weights and Measures) in 1967, and in 1971, it was adopted by the 14th CGPM (General Conference on Weights and Measures).

In 1961, the isotope carbon-12 was selected to replace oxygen as the standard relative to which the atomic weights of all the other elements are measured. [2]

In 1980, the CIPM clarified the above definition, defining that the carbon-12 atoms are unbound and in their ground state.

In 2018, IUPAC specified the mole as exactly 6.02214076×1023 "elementary entities". The number of moles in 12 grams of carbon-12 became a matter of experimental determination.

Hoyle state

The Hoyle state and possible decay ways Hoyle state and possible decay way.svg
The Hoyle state and possible decay ways

The Hoyle state is an excited, spinless, resonant state of carbon-12. It is produced via the triple-alpha process and was predicted to exist by Fred Hoyle in 1954. [3] The existence of the 7.7 MeV resonance Hoyle state is essential for the nucleosynthesis of carbon in helium-burning stars and predicts an amount of carbon production in a stellar environment which matches observations. The existence of the Hoyle state has been confirmed experimentally, but its precise properties are still being investigated. [4]

The Hoyle state is populated when a helium-4 nucleus fuses with a beryllium-8 nucleus in a high-temperature (108  K) environment with densely concentrated (105 g/cm3) helium. This process must occur within 10−16 seconds as a consequence of the short half-life of 8Be. The Hoyle state also is a short-lived resonance with a half-life of 2.4×10−16 s; it primarily decays back into its three constituent alpha particles, though 0.0413% of decays (or 1 in 2421.3) occur by internal conversion into the ground state of 12C. [5]

In 2011, an ab initio calculation of the low-lying states of carbon-12 found (in addition to the ground and excited spin-2 state) a resonance with all of the properties of the Hoyle state. [6] [7]

Isotopic purification

The isotopes of carbon can be separated in the form of carbon dioxide gas by cascaded chemical exchange reactions with amine carbamate. [8]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atom</span> Smallest unit of a chemical element

Atoms are the basic particles of the chemical elements. An atom consists of a nucleus of protons and generally neutrons, surrounded by an electromagnetically bound swarm of electrons. The chemical elements are distinguished from each other by the number of protons that are in their atoms. For example, any atom that contains 11 protons is sodium, and any atom that contains 29 protons is copper. Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes of the same element.

A chemical element is a chemical substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions. The basic particle that constitutes a chemical element is the atom. Elements are identified by the number of protons in their nucleus, known as the element's atomic number. For example, oxygen has an atomic number of 8, meaning each oxygen atom has 8 protons in its nucleus. Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, known as isotopes of the element. Two or more atoms can combine to form molecules. Chemical compounds are molecules made of atoms of different elements, while mixtures contain atoms of different elements not necessarily combined as molecules. Atoms can be transformed into different elements in nuclear reactions, which change an atom's atomic number.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mole (unit)</span> SI unit of amount of substance

The mole (symbol mol) is a unit of measurement, the base unit in the International System of Units (SI) for amount of substance, a quantity proportional to the number of elementary entities of a substance. One mole contains exactly 6.02214076×1023 elementary entities (approximately 602 sextillion or 602 billion times a trillion), which can be atoms, molecules, ions, or other particles. The number of particles in a mole is the Avogadro number (symbol N0) and the numerical value of the Avogadro constant (symbol NA) expressed in mol-1. The value was chosen based on the historical definition of the mole as the amount of substance that corresponds to the number of atoms in 12 grams of 12C, which made the mass of a mole of a compound expressed in grams, numerically equal to the average molecular mass of the compound expressed in daltons. With the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, the numerical equivalence is now only approximate but may be assumed for all practical purposes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avogadro constant</span> Fundamental metric system constant defined as the number of particles per mole

The Avogadro constant, commonly denoted NA or L, is an SI defining constant with an exact value of 6.02214076×1023 mol−1 (reciprocal moles). It is defined as the number of constituent particles (usually molecules, atoms, or ions) per mole (SI unit) and used as a normalization factor in the amount of substance in a sample. The constant is named after the physicist and chemist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856).

The dalton or unified atomic mass unit is a non-SI unit of mass defined as 1/12 of the mass of an unbound neutral atom of carbon-12 in its nuclear and electronic ground state and at rest. The atomic mass constant, denoted mu, is defined identically, giving mu = 1/12m(12C) = 1 Da.

Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons and nuclei. According to current theories, the first nuclei were formed a few minutes after the Big Bang, through nuclear reactions in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. After about 20 minutes, the universe had expanded and cooled to a point at which these high-energy collisions among nucleons ended, so only the fastest and simplest reactions occurred, leaving our universe containing hydrogen and helium. The rest is traces of other elements such as lithium and the hydrogen isotope deuterium. Nucleosynthesis in stars and their explosions later produced the variety of elements and isotopes that we have today, in a process called cosmic chemical evolution. The amounts of total mass in elements heavier than hydrogen and helium remains small, so that the universe still has approximately the same composition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triple-alpha process</span> Nuclear fusion reaction chain converting helium to carbon

The triple-alpha process is a set of nuclear fusion reactions by which three helium-4 nuclei are transformed into carbon.

Relative atomic mass, also known by the deprecated synonym atomic weight, is a dimensionless physical quantity defined as the ratio of the average mass of atoms of a chemical element in a given sample to the atomic mass constant. The atomic mass constant is defined as being 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Since both quantities in the ratio are masses, the resulting value is dimensionless. These definitions remain valid even after the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units.

The abundance of the chemical elements is a measure of the occurrence of the chemical elements relative to all other elements in a given environment. Abundance is measured in one of three ways: by mass fraction, by mole fraction, or by volume fraction. Volume fraction is a common abundance measure in mixed gases such as planetary atmospheres, and is similar in value to molecular mole fraction for gas mixtures at relatively low densities and pressures, and ideal gas mixtures. Most abundance values in this article are given as mass fractions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mass number</span> Number of heavy particles in the atomic nucleus

The mass number (symbol A, from the German word: Atomgewicht, "atomic weight"), also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus. It is approximately equal to the atomic (also known as isotopic) mass of the atom expressed in atomic mass units. Since protons and neutrons are both baryons, the mass number A is identical with the baryon number B of the nucleus (and also of the whole atom or ion). The mass number is different for each isotope of a given chemical element, and the difference between the mass number and the atomic number Z gives the number of neutrons (N) in the nucleus: N = AZ.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amount of substance</span> Extensive physical property

In chemistry, the amount of substance (symbol n) in a given sample of matter is defined as a ratio (n = N/NA) between the number of elementary entities (N) and the Avogadro constant (NA). The entities are usually molecules, atoms, or ions of a specified kind. The particular substance sampled may be specified using a subscript, e.g., the amount of sodium chloride (NaCl) would be denoted as nNaCl. The unit of amount of substance in the International System of Units is the mole (symbol: mol), a base unit. Since 2019, the value of the Avogadro constant NA is defined to be exactly 6.02214076×1023 mol−1. Sometimes, the amount of substance is referred to as the chemical amount or, informally, as the "number of moles" in a given sample of matter.

Supernova nucleosynthesis is the nucleosynthesis of chemical elements in supernova explosions.

Although there are nine known isotopes of helium (2He), only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable. All radioisotopes are short-lived, the longest-lived being 6
He
with a half-life of 806.92(24) milliseconds. The least stable is 10
He
, with a half-life of 260(40) yoctoseconds, although it is possible that 2
He
may have an even shorter half-life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear binding energy</span> Minimum energy required to separate particles within a nucleus

Nuclear binding energy in experimental physics is the minimum energy that is required to disassemble the nucleus of an atom into its constituent protons and neutrons, known collectively as nucleons. The binding energy for stable nuclei is always a positive number, as the nucleus must gain energy for the nucleons to move apart from each other. Nucleons are attracted to each other by the strong nuclear force. In theoretical nuclear physics, the nuclear binding energy is considered a negative number. In this context it represents the energy of the nucleus relative to the energy of the constituent nucleons when they are infinitely far apart. Both the experimental and theoretical views are equivalent, with slightly different emphasis on what the binding energy means.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Standard atomic weight</span> Relative atomic mass as defined by IUPAC (CIAAW)

The standard atomic weight of a chemical element (symbol Ar°(E) for element "E") is the weighted arithmetic mean of the relative isotopic masses of all isotopes of that element weighted by each isotope's abundance on Earth. For example, isotope 63Cu (Ar = 62.929) constitutes 69% of the copper on Earth, the rest being 65Cu (Ar = 64.927), so

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mass (mass spectrometry)</span> Physical quantities being measured

The mass recorded by a mass spectrometer can refer to different physical quantities depending on the characteristics of the instrument and the manner in which the mass spectrum is displayed.

Beryllium-8 is a radionuclide with 4 neutrons and 4 protons. It is an unbound resonance and nominally an isotope of beryllium. It decays into two alpha particles with a half-life on the order of 8.19×10−17 seconds. This has important ramifications in stellar nucleosynthesis as it creates a bottleneck in the creation of heavier chemical elements. The properties of 8Be have also led to speculation on the fine tuning of the Universe, and theoretical investigations on cosmological evolution had 8Be been stable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Isotope</span> Different atoms of the same element

Isotopes are distinct nuclear species of the same chemical element. They have the same atomic number and position in the periodic table, but differ in nucleon numbers due to different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. While all isotopes of a given element have similar chemical properties, they have different atomic masses and physical properties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atomic mass</span> Rest mass of an atom in its ground state

The atomic mass (ma or m) is the mass of an atom. Although the SI unit of mass is the kilogram (symbol: kg), atomic mass is often expressed in the non-SI unit dalton (symbol: Da) – equivalently, unified atomic mass unit (u). 1 Da is defined as 112 of the mass of a free carbon-12 atom at rest in its ground state. The protons and neutrons of the nucleus account for nearly all of the total mass of atoms, with the electrons and nuclear binding energy making minor contributions. Thus, the numeric value of the atomic mass when expressed in daltons has nearly the same value as the mass number. Conversion between mass in kilograms and mass in daltons can be done using the atomic mass constant .

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alternative approaches to redefining the kilogram</span>

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References

  1. "Table of Isotopic Masses and Natural Abundances" (PDF). 1999.
  2. "Atomic Weights and the International Committee — A Historical Review". 2004-01-26.
  3. Hoyle, F. (1954). "On Nuclear Reactions Occurring in Very Hot Stars. I. the Synthesis of Elements from Carbon to Nickel". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 1: 121. Bibcode:1954ApJS....1..121H. doi:10.1086/190005. ISSN   0067-0049.
  4. Freer, M.; Fynbo, H. O. U. (2014). "The Hoyle state in 12C". Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics. 78: 1–23. Bibcode:2014PrPNP..78....1F. doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2014.06.001.
  5. Alshahrani, B.; Kibédi, T.; Stuchberry, A. E.; Williams, E.; Fares, S. (2013). "Measurement of the radiative branching ratio for the Hoyle state using cascade gamma decays". EPJ Web of Conferences. 63: 01022-1–01022-4. Bibcode:2013EPJWC..6301022A. doi: 10.1051/epjconf/20136301022 . hdl: 1885/101943 .
  6. Epelbaum, E.; Krebs, H.; Lee, D.; Meißner, U.-G. (2011). "Ab Initio Calculation of the Hoyle State". Physical Review Letters. 106 (19): 192501. arXiv: 1101.2547 . Bibcode:2011PhRvL.106s2501E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.192501. PMID   21668146. S2CID   33827991.
  7. Hjorth-Jensen, M. (2011). "Viewpoint: The carbon challenge". Physics. Vol. 4. p. 38. Bibcode:2011PhyOJ...4...38H. doi: 10.1103/Physics.4.38 .
  8. Kenji Takeshita and Masaru Ishidaa (December 2006). "Optimum design of multi-stage isotope separation process by exergy analysis". Energy. 31 (15): 3097–3107. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2006.04.002.
Lighter:
carbon-11
Carbon-12 is an
isotope of carbon
Heavier:
carbon-13
Decay product of:
boron-12, nitrogen-12
Decay chain
of carbon-12
Decays to:
stable