Brookings Institution

Last updated

The Brookings Institution
AbbreviationBrookings
Formation1916;107 years ago (1916)
Type Public policy think tank
53-0196577
Headquarters1775 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.
Location
  • Washington, D.C., U.S.
Coordinates 38°54′33″N77°02′27″W / 38.90917°N 77.04083°W / 38.90917; -77.04083 Coordinates: 38°54′33″N77°02′27″W / 38.90917°N 77.04083°W / 38.90917; -77.04083
Acting President
Amy Liu
Revenue (2020)
$86.28 million [1]
Expenses (2020)$93.372 million [1]
Endowment $355.2 million (2020) [2]
Website www.brookings.edu OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Formerly called
Institute for Government Research

The Brookings Institution, often stylized as simply Brookings, [3] is an American research group founded in 1916. Located on Think Tank Row in Washington, D.C., [4] the organization conducts research and education in the social sciences, primarily in economics (and tax policy), metropolitan policy, governance, foreign policy, global economy, and economic development. [5] [6] Its stated mission is to "provide innovative and practical recommendations that advance three broad goals: strengthen American democracy; foster the economic and social welfare, security and opportunity of all Americans; and secure a more open, safe, prosperous, and cooperative international system." [4]

Contents

Brookings has five research programs at its Washington campus: Economic Studies, [7] Foreign Policy, [8] Governance Studies, [9] Global Economy and Development, [10] and Metropolitan Policy. [11] It also established and operated three international centers in Doha, Qatar (Brookings Doha Center); [12] Beijing, China (Brookings-Tsinghua Center for Public Policy); [13] and New Delhi, India (Brookings India). [14] In 2020 and 2021, the institution announced it was separating entirely from its centers in Doha and New Delhi, and transitioning its center in Beijing to an informal partnership with Tsinghua University, known as Brookings-Tsinghua China. [15]

The University of Pennsylvania's Global Go To Think Tank Index Report has named Brookings "Think Tank of the Year" and "Top Think Tank in the World" every year since 2008. [16] The Economist describes Brookings as "perhaps America’s most prestigious think-tank." [17]

Brookings states that its staff "represent diverse points of view" and describes itself as nonpartisan, [18] and various media outlets have variously described Brookings as centrist, [19] center-left, [20] liberal, [21] or right-wing. [22] An academic analysis of congressional records from 1993 to 2002 found that Brookings was cited by conservative politicians almost as often as by liberal politicians, earning a score of 53 on a 1–100 scale, 100 representing the most liberal score. [23] The same study found Brookings to be the most frequently cited think tank by U.S. media and politicians. [23]

History

1916–1979

Founder Robert S. Brookings (1850-1932) Robert S. Brookings.jpg
Founder Robert S. Brookings (1850–1932)

Brookings was founded in 1916 as the Institute for Government Research (IGR), with the mission of becoming "the first private organization devoted to analyzing public policy issues at the national level." [24] The organization was founded on 13 March 1916 and began operations on 1 October 1916. [25]

The Institution's founder, philanthropist Robert S. Brookings (1850–1932), originally created three organizations: the Institute for Government Research, the Institute of Economics (with funds from the Carnegie Corporation), and the Robert Brookings Graduate School affiliated with Washington University in St. Louis. The three were merged into the Brookings Institution on December 8, 1927. [6] [26]

During the Great Depression, economists at Brookings embarked on a large-scale study commissioned by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to understand its underlying causes. Brookings's first president, Harold G. Moulton, and other Brookings scholars later led an effort to oppose Roosevelt's National Recovery Administration because they thought it impeded economic recovery. [27]

With the U.S. entry into World War II in 1941, Brookings researchers turned their attention to aiding the administration with a series of studies on mobilization. In 1948, Brookings was asked to submit a plan for administering the European Recovery Program. The resulting organization scheme assured that the Marshall Plan was run carefully and on a businesslike basis. [28]

In 1952, Robert Calkins succeeded Moulton as president of the Brookings Institution. He secured grants from the Rockefeller Foundation and the Ford Foundation that put Brookings on a strong financial basis. He reorganized it around the Economic Studies, Government Studies, and Foreign Policy Programs. In 1957, Brookings moved from Jackson Avenue to a new research center near Dupont Circle in Washington, D.C. [29]

Kermit Gordon assumed the presidency of Brookings in 1967. He began a series of studies of program choices for the federal budget in 1969 titled "Setting National Priorities." He also expanded the Foreign Policy Studies Program to include research in national security and defense. After Richard Nixon was elected president in 1968, the relationship between Brookings and the White House deteriorated; at one point Nixon's aide Charles Colson proposed a firebombing of the institution. [30] G. Gordon Liddy and the White House Plumbers actually made a plan to firebomb the headquarters and steal classified files, but it was canceled because the Nixon administration refused to pay for a fire engine as a getaway vehicle. [31] Yet throughout the 1970s, Brookings was offered more federal research contracts than it could handle. [32]

After Gordon died in 1976, Gilbert Y. Steiner, director of the governmental studies program, was appointed the fourth and acting president of the Brookings Institution by the board of trustees. [33] [34] As director of the governmental studies program, Steiner brought in numerous scholars whose research ranges from administrative reform to urban policy, not only enhancing the visibility and influence of the Brookings program in Washington and nationally, but also producing works that have survived as classics in the field of political science. [33] [35]

1980–2022

Russian President Dmitry Medvedev at Brookings on 14 April 2010 while on a visit to the United States for the 2010 Nuclear Security Summit Dmitry Medvedev in the United States 14 April 2010-10.jpeg
Russian President Dmitry Medvedev at Brookings on 14 April 2010 while on a visit to the United States for the 2010 Nuclear Security Summit
Jose Maria Figueres, former President of Costa Rica, speaking at Brookings Institution Jose Maria Figueres speaking at Brookings Institution.jpg
José María Figueres, former President of Costa Rica, speaking at Brookings Institution

By the 1980s, Brookings faced an increasingly competitive and ideologically charged intellectual environment. [36] The need to reduce the federal budget deficit became a major research theme, as did problems with national security and government inefficiency. Bruce MacLaury, [37] Brookings's fifth president, also established the Center for Public Policy Education to develop workshop conferences and public forums to broaden the audience for research programs. [38]

In 1995, Michael Armacost became the sixth president of the Brookings Institution and led an effort to refocus its mission heading into the 21st century. [39] Under his direction, Brookings created several interdisciplinary research centers, such as the Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy (now the Metropolitan Policy Program, led by Bruce J. Katz), [40] which brought attention to the strengths of cities and metropolitan areas; and the Center for Northeast Asian Policy Studies, which brings together specialists from different Asian countries to examine regional problems. [41]

Strobe Talbott became president of Brookings in 2002. [42] Shortly thereafter, Brookings launched the Saban Center for Middle East Policy and the John L. Thornton China Center. In 2006, Brookings announced the establishment of the Brookings-Tsinghua Center in Beijing. In July 2007, Brookings announced the creation of the Engelberg Center for Health Care Reform to be directed by senior fellow Mark McClellan, [43] and in October 2007 the creation of the Brookings Doha Center directed by fellow Hady Amr in Qatar. [44] During this period the funding of Brookings by foreign governments and corporations came under public scrutiny (see Funding controversies below).

In 2011, Talbott inaugurated the Brookings India Office. [45] [46]

In October 2017, former general John R. Allen became the eighth president of Brookings. [47] Allen resigned on June 12, 2022, amid an FBI foreign lobbying investigation. [48]

As of June 30, 2019, Brookings had an endowment of $377.2 million. [49]

Publications

Brookings as an institution produces an Annual Report. [50] The Brookings Institution Press publishes books and journals from the institution's own research as well as authors outside the organization. [51] The books and journals it publishes include Brookings Papers on Economic Activity , [52] Brookings Review (1982–2003, ISSN   0745-1253), [53] [54] America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy, Globalphobia: Confronting Fears about Open Trade, India: Emerging Power, Through Their Eyes, Taking the High Road, Masses in Flight, US Public Policy Regarding Sovereign Wealth Fund Investment in the United States [55] and Stalemate. In addition, books, papers, articles, reports, policy briefs and opinion pieces are produced by Brookings research programs, centers, projects and, for the most part, by experts. [56] [57] Brookings also cooperates with the Lawfare Institute in publishing the Lawfare blog. [58]

Policy influence

Brookings traces its history to 1916 and has contributed to the creation of the United Nations, the Marshall Plan, and the Congressional Budget Office, as well as to the development of influential policies for deregulation, broad-based tax reform, welfare reform, and foreign aid. [59] The annual think tank index published by Foreign Policy ranks it the number one think tank in the U.S. [60] and the Global Go To Think Tank Index believes it is the number one such tank in the world. [61] Moreover, in spite of an overall decline in the number of times information or opinions developed by think tanks are cited by U.S. media, of the 200 most prominent think tanks in the U.S., the Brookings Institution's research remains the most frequently cited. [62] [63]

In a 1997 survey of congressional staff and journalists, Brookings ranked as the most influential and first in credibility among 27 think tanks considered. [64] Yet "Brookings and its researchers are not so concerned, in their work, in affecting the ideological direction of the nation" and rather tend "to be staffed by researchers with strong academic credentials". [64] Along with the Council on Foreign Relations and Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Brookings is generally considered one of the most influential policy institutes in the U.S. [65]

Political stance

As a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, Brookings describes itself as independent and nonpartisan. A 2005 UCLA study concluded it was "centrist" because it was referenced as an authority almost equally by both conservative and liberal politicians in congressional records from 1993 to 2002. [23] The New York Times has called Brookings liberal, liberal-centrist, and centrist. [66] [19] [67] [68] [69] [70] The Washington Post has called Brookings centrist, liberal, and center-left. [71] [72] [73] [74] [20] The Los Angeles Times called Brookings liberal-leaning and centrist before opining that it did not believe such labels mattered. [75] [76] [77] [78]

In 1977, Time magazine called Brookings the "nation's pre-eminent liberal think tank". [79] Newsweek has called it centrist [80] and Politico has used the term "center-left". [81]

The media watchdog group Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, which describes itself as "progressive", [82] has called Brookings "centrist", [62] [83] "conservative", [84] and "center-right". [85]

Journalists at The Atlantic and Salon have argued that Brookings foreign policy scholars were overly supportive of Bush administration policies abroad. [86] [87]

Brookings scholars have served in Republican and Democratic administrations, including Mark McClellan, [88] Ron Haskins [89] and Martin Indyk. [90] [91]

Brookings's board of trustees is composed of 53 trustees and more than three dozen honorary trustees, including Kenneth Duberstein, a former chief of staff to Ronald Reagan. Aside from political figures, the board of trustees includes leaders in business and industry, including Haim Saban, Robert Bass, Hanzade Doğan Boyner, Paul L. Cejas, W. Edmund Clark, Abby Joseph Cohen, Betsy Cohen, Susan Crown, Arthur B. Culvahouse Jr., Jason Cummins, Paul Desmarais Jr., Kenneth M. Duberstein, Glenn Hutchins, and Philip H. Knight (chairman emeritus of Nike, Inc). [92]

Starting with the 1990 election cycle, Brookings employees gave $853,017 to Democratic candidates and $26,104 to Republican candidates. In total, since 1990, 96% of its political donations have gone to Democrats. [93]

Presidents

Since its incorporation as the Brookings Institution in 1927, it has been led by accomplished academics and public servants. Brookings has had eight presidents, including one in acting capacity. [94] The current interim president is Amy Liu, who replaced Ted Gayer, who began serving on an acting basis since June 12, 2022.

Notable scholars

Notable current and former Brookings scholars include former Federal Reserve chairs Janet Yellen [98] and Ben Bernanke; [99] former Federal Reserve vice chairs Donald Kohn, [100] Alice Rivlin, [101] and Alan Blinder; [102] former chairs of the White House Council of Economic Advisers (CEA) Jason Furman [103] and Martin Neil Baily; [104] former CEA members Sandra Black, [105] Jay Shambaugh, [106] and James H. Stock; [107] former director of the Congressional Budget Office Douglas Elmendorf; [108] former US secretary of education Arne Duncan; [109] former Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs Martin Indyk; [110] dean of the University of Michigan's Ford School of Public Policy Susan M. Collins; [111] former Federal Communications Commission chairman Tom Wheeler; [112] Washington Post columnist E. J. Dionne; [113] Wall Street Journal columnist William Galston; [114] former NSC official Fiona Hill; [115] and Eurasia analyst Igor Danchenko. [116]

Research programs

Center for Middle East Policy

In 2002, the Brookings Institution established the Center for Middle East Policy "to promote a better understanding of the policy choices facing American decision-makers in the Middle East".

Brookings-Tsinghua Center for Public Policy

  Investment return designated for operations (13.1%)
  Grants, contracts, and contributions (82.5%)
  Program services (0.3%)
  Brookings Press (1.5%)
  Facility and other revenue (2.6%)
Brookings Institution
Traditional Chinese 清華-布魯金斯公共政策研究中心
Simplified Chinese 清华-布鲁金斯公共政策研究中心

Expenses as of 2017: $97,986,000

  Economic Studies (16.3%)
  Foreign Policy (15.6%)
  Global Economy and Development (12.3%)
  Governance Studies (7.5%)
  Metropolitan Policy Program (8.3%)
  Institutional Initiatives (9.8%)
  Brookings Press (2.6%)
  Communications (2.2%)
  Management and general (21.7%)
  Fundraising (3.7%)

Funding controversies

A 2014 investigation by The New York Times found Brookings to be among more than a dozen Washington research groups and think tanks to have received payments from foreign governments while encouraging American government officials to support policies aligned with those foreign governments' agendas. [126] The Times published documents showing that Brookings accepted grants from Norway with specific policy requests and helped it gain access to U.S. government officials, as well as other "deliverables". [127] [128] In June 2014, Norway agreed to make an additional $4 million donation to Brookings. [126] Several legal specialists who examined the documents told the paper that the language of the transactions "appeared to necessitate Brookings filing as a foreign agent" under the Foreign Agent Registration Act. [128]

The Qatari government, named by The New York Times as "the single biggest foreign donor to Brookings", reportedly made a $14.8 million, four-year contribution in 2013. A former visiting fellow at a Brookings affiliate in Qatar reportedly said that "he had been told during his job interview that he could not take positions critical of the Qatar government in papers". [126] Brookings officials denied any connection between the views of their funders and their scholars' work, citing reports that questioned the Qatari government's education reform efforts and criticized its support of militants in Syria. But Brookings officials reportedly acknowledged that they meet with Qatari government officials regularly. [126]

In 2018, The Washington Post reported that Brookings accepted funding from Huawei from 2012 to 2018. [129] A report by the Center for International Policy's Foreign Influence Transparency Initiative of the top 50 think tanks on the University of Pennsylvania's Global Go-To Think Tanks rating index found that between 2014 and 2018, Brookings received the third-highest amount of funding from outside the United States compared to other think tanks, with a total of more than $27 million. [130]

In 2022, Brookings president John R. Allen resigned amid an FBI probe into lobbying on behalf of Qatar. [131]

Buildings

The main building of the Institution was erected in 1959 on 1775 Massachusetts Avenue. In 2009, Brookings acquired a building across the street, a former mansion built by the Ingalls family in 1922 on a design by Jules Henri de Sibour. [132] This extension now houses the office of the President of the Brookings Institution.[ citation needed ]

Collaborations

Timbuktu Renaissance

After Islamist militants associated with Al-Qaeda attacked Timbuktu, Mali, in 2012, [133] [134] Manny Ansar, founding director of the Festival au Désert, collaborated with American music producer Chris Shields, Malian social entrepreneur Salif Romano Niang, and former American ambassador Cynthia Schneider to found the Timbuktu Renaissance (TR). [135] The Timbuktu Renaissance launched in June 2014 at the Brookings Institution's US-Islamic World Forum in Doha, Qatar. Artists, scholars, and cultural leaders (including Vieux Farka Touré and Abdel Kader Haidara, the "bad-ass librarian of Timbuktu" [136] ) met with government leaders (including the newly elected president, Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta), along with American counterparts, to develop a strategy using Mali's music and cultural heritage to help the city recover from conflict. [135]

The initiative "seeks to boost Mali's creative industries, such as tourism, literature, architecture, music, film and art, as well as mobilize investment for sustainable economic development in areas including education, agriculture, renewable energy and natural resources". [134] Google Arts & Culture has worked with TR and Haidara to digitize the manuscripts the librarians saved. TR's first public concert was given in December 2017, thereafter taking place each month. It also produces albums and runs residencies for musicians. [135]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Think tank</span> Organization that performs policy research and advocacy

A think tank, or policy institute, is a research institute that performs research and advocacy concerning topics such as social policy, political strategy, economics, military, technology, and culture. Most think tanks are non-governmental organizations, but some are semi-autonomous agencies within government or are associated with particular political parties, businesses or the military. Think-tank funding often includes a combination of donations from very wealthy people and those not so wealthy, with many also accepting government grants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American Enterprise Institute</span> American conservative think tank founded in 1938

The American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, known simply as the American Enterprise Institute (AEI), is a center-right Washington, D.C.–based think tank that researches government, politics, economics, and social welfare. AEI is an independent nonprofit organization supported primarily by contributions from foundations, corporations, and individuals. Founded in 1938, AEI is aligned with conservatism and neoconservatism but does not support political candidates. AEI advocates in favor of private enterprise, limited government, and democratic capitalism.

The Heritage Foundation is an American conservative think tank based in Washington, D.C. that is primarily geared toward public policy. The foundation took a leading role in the conservative movement during the presidency of Ronald Reagan, whose policies were taken from Heritage's policy study Mandate for Leadership.

New America, formerly the New America Foundation, is a think tank in the United States founded in 1999. It focuses on a range of public policy issues, including national security studies, technology, asset building, health, gender, energy, education, and the economy. The organization is based in Washington, D.C. and Oakland, California. Anne-Marie Slaughter is the chief executive officer (CEO) of the think tank.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Center for American Progress</span> Liberal think tank in the United States

The Center for American Progress (CAP) is a public policy research and advocacy organization which presents a liberal viewpoint on economic and social issues. It has its headquarters in Washington, D.C.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carnegie Endowment for International Peace</span> Washington-based American think tank

The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP) is a nonpartisan international affairs think tank headquartered in Washington D.C. with operations in Europe, South and East Asia, and the Middle East as well as the United States. Founded in 1910 by Andrew Carnegie, the organization describes itself as being dedicated to advancing cooperation between countries, reducing global conflict, and promoting active international engagement by the United States and countries around the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Center for Strategic and International Studies</span> American think tank in Washington, D.C.

The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) is an American think tank based in Washington, D.C. CSIS was founded as the Center for Strategic and International Studies of Georgetown University in 1962. The center conducts policy studies and strategic analyses of political, economic and security issues throughout the world, with a specific focus on issues concerning international relations, trade, technology, finance, energy and geostrategy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs</span> Professional school of Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York, USA

The Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs is the professional public policy school of Syracuse University, a private research university in Syracuse, New York. The school is organized in 11 academic departments and 13 affiliated research centers and offers coursework in the fields of public administration, international relations, foreign policy, political Science, science and technology policy, social sciences, and economics through its undergraduate (BA) degrees, graduate Master of Public Affairs (MPA), Master of Arts (MA), and PhD degrees.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Economic Policy Institute</span>

The Economic Policy Institute (EPI) is a 501(c)(3) non-profit American, left-leaning think tank based in Washington, D.C., that carries out economic research and analyzes the economic impact of policies and proposals. Affiliated with the labor movement the EPI is usually described as presenting a left-leaning and pro-union viewpoint on public policy issues. Since 2021, the EPI has been led by economist Heidi Shierholz, a former Chief Economist of the Department of Labor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Progressive Policy Institute</span> Centrist American think tank

The Progressive Policy Institute (PPI) is a non-profit, 501(c)(3) organization that serves as a public policy think tank in the United States. The Democratic Leadership Council (DLC) founded it in 1989. The Washington Post has described it as "a centrist Democratic institution."

The Washington Institute for Near East Policy is a pro-Israel American think tank based in Washington, D.C., focused on the foreign policy of the United States in the Near East.

The Peterson Institute for International Economics (PIIE), known until 2006 as the Institute for International Economics (IIE), is an American think tank based in Washington, D.C. It was founded by C. Fred Bergsten in 1981 and has been led by Adam S. Posen since 2013. The institute conducts research, provides policy recommendations, and publishes books and articles on a wide range of topics related to the US economy and international economics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban Institute</span> Washington, D.C.–based think tank

The Urban Institute is a Washington, D.C.–based think tank that carries out economic and social policy research to "open minds, shape decisions, and offer solutions". The institute receives funding from government contracts, foundations and private donors. The Urban Institute measures policy effects, compares options, shows which stakeholders get the most and least, tests conventional wisdom, reveals trends, and makes costs, benefits, and risks explicit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">William Galston</span> American author, scholar, and academic

William Arthur Galston holds the Ezra K. Zilkha Chair in Governance Studies and is a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution; he joined the think tank on January 1, 2006. Formerly the Saul Stern Professor and Dean at the School of Public Policy at the University of Maryland and a professor of political science at the University of Texas, Austin, Galston specializes in issues of U.S. public philosophy and political institutions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Martin Indyk</span> U.S. Diplomat in the Middle East

Martin Sean Indyk is an American diplomat and foreign relations analyst with expertise in the Middle East. He was a distinguished fellow in International Diplomacy and later executive vice president at the Brookings Institution in Washington, D.C from 2001-2018. He took leave from the Brookings Institution to serve as the U.S. Special Envoy for Israeli–Palestinian Negotiations from 2013 to 2014. He is currently a distinguished fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations.

The Center for the National Interest is a Washington, D.C.-based public policy think tank. It was established by former U.S. President Richard Nixon on January 20, 1994, as the Nixon Center for Peace and Freedom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arvind Panagariya</span>

Arvind Panagariya is an Indian-American economist who is the Jagdish Bhagwati Professor of Indian Political Economy at Columbia University and is also the Director of Deepak and Neera Raj Center on Indian Economic Policies at School of International and Public Affairs at Columbia University in New York City. He served as first vice-chairman of the government of India think-tank NITI Aayog between January 2015 and August 2017. He is a former Chief Economist of the Asian Development Bank. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan by the President of India in 2012 for his contributions in the field of economics and Public Policy.

Third Way is a Washington, D.C.–based public policy think tank founded in 2005. Third Way develops and advocates for policies that it claims represent "modern center-left ideas".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael Barr (Treasury official)</span> American legal academic (born 1965/1966)

Michael S. Barr is an American legal scholar who has been the second vice chair of the Federal Reserve for supervision since 2022. From 2009 to 2011, he was assistant secretary of the treasury for financial institutions under President Barack Obama.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">James McGann</span> American academic (1955–2021)

James G. McGann (1955–2021) was an American academic who was a Senior Lecturer in International Studies, Founder and Director of the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program at the Lauder Institute, University of Pennsylvania and a Senior Fellow at the Foreign Policy Research Institute. He was the author of numerous publications, including the renowned annual Global Go To Think Tank Index which ranks think tanks in all regions of the world. His most recent book was "Think Tanks: The New Knowledge and Policy Brokers in Asia" published by the Brookings Institution Press. Dr. McGann was most notable for his extensive work on public policy research organizations, and he was a frequent adviser to numerous governments and international organizations worldwide.

References

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 4 "Annual Report 2017" (PDF). Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved June 1, 2018.
  2. ↑ As of June 30, 2020. U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year 2020 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY19 to FY20 (Report). National Association of College and University Business Officers and TIAA. February 19, 2021. Retrieved February 20, 2021.
  3. ↑ "Brookings - Quality. Independence. Impact". Brookings. Retrieved May 6, 2022.
  4. 1 2 "About Brookings". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on April 30, 2010. Retrieved April 29, 2010.
  5. ↑ "Brookings Institution". Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  6. 1 2 "Robert Somers Brookings". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on December 12, 2012. Retrieved April 29, 2010.
  7. ↑ "Economic Studies". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  8. ↑ "Foreign Policy". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  9. ↑ "Governance Studies". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  10. ↑ "Global Economy and Development". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  11. ↑ "Metropolitan Policy Program". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  12. ↑ "Brookings Doha Center". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on October 21, 2012. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  13. ↑ "Brookings-Tsinghua Center for Public Policy". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  14. ↑ "Brookings India". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  15. ↑ "The Brookings Institution transitions from foreign centers to focus on digital and global engagement". The Brookings Institution. September 29, 2021. Retrieved June 12, 2022.
  16. ↑ "TTCSP GLOBAL GO TO THINK TANK INDEX REPORTS". UPenn.edu. University of Pennsylvania. January 28, 2021. Archived from the original on May 24, 2011. Retrieved February 3, 2017.
  17. ↑ "The New America Foundation falls into a familiar trap". The Economist . September 7, 2017.
  18. ↑ "Brookings Research". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. June 25, 2003. Retrieved June 24, 2020.
  19. 1 2 DeParle, Jason (June 14, 2005). "Next Generation of Conservatives (By the Dormful)". The New York Times.
  20. 1 2 Stein, Jeff (June 24, 2019). "Sanders proposes canceling entire $1.6 trillion in U.S. student loan debt, escalating Democratic policy battle". The Washington Post . Retrieved November 18, 2022.
  21. ↑ Kurtzleben, Danielle (March 3, 2011). "Think Tank Employees Tend to Support Democrats". U.S. News & World Report . Retrieved February 14, 2016.
  22. ↑ "Brookings Institution: 'Liberal,' Centrist… or Extremist?". Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting. May 26, 2009. Retrieved October 6, 2021.
  23. 1 2 3 Groseclose, Tim; Milyo, Jeffrey (November 2005). "A Measure of Media Bias". The Quarterly Journal of Economics . 120 (4): 1191–1237. doi: 10.1162/003355305775097542 .
  24. ↑ "Brookings Institution History". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. November 30, 2001. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  25. ↑ Willoughby, W. F. (1918). "The Institute for Government Research". American Political Science Review. 12 (1): 49–62. doi:10.2307/1946341. ISSN   0003-0554. JSTOR   1946341. S2CID   147043158.
  26. ↑ Critchlow, Donald T. (1985). The Brookings Institution, 1916–1952: Expertise and the Public Interest in a Democratic Society . DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN   9780875801032.
  27. ↑ "Brookings History: The Depression". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on July 12, 2007. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  28. ↑ "Brookings History: War and Readjustment". Archived from the original on July 12, 2007.
  29. ↑ "Brookings History: Academic Prestige". Archived from the original on August 14, 2007.
  30. ↑ Woodward, Bob; Bernstein, Carl (June 1974). All the President's Men . Simon & Schuster. p.  324.
  31. ↑ Dobbs, Michael (2021). King Richard: Nixon and Watergate: An American Tragedy (1 ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-385-35009-9. OCLC 1176325912.
  32. ↑ "Brookings History: National Doubts and Confusion". Archived from the original on August 14, 2007.
  33. 1 2 Derthick, Martha; Nivola, Pietro S. (July 2006). "Gilbert Yale Steiner". PS: Political Science & Politics. 39 (3): 551–554. doi: 10.1017/S1049096506210813 . ISSN   1537-5935.
  34. ↑ Dews, Fred (November 6, 2017). "Profiles of Brookings's leaders since 1927". Brookings Institution. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
  35. ↑ "Gilbert Steiner". The Washington Post. March 11, 2021. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
  36. ↑ Easterbrook, Gregg (January 1, 1986). "Ideas Move Nations". The Atlantic . Retrieved December 30, 2017.
  37. ↑ "Bruce K. MacLaury". federalreservehistory.org.
  38. ↑ "Brookings History: Setting New Agendas". Archived from the original on July 12, 2007.
  39. ↑ "Former U.S. Ambassador and Veteran Diplomat to Deliver Convocation". Carleton. November 1, 2010. Retrieved July 16, 2018.
  40. ↑ "Centennial Scholar Initiative". Brookings Institution. Retrieved December 30, 2017.
  41. ↑ "Bates Gill". The Conversation . September 14, 2017. Retrieved July 9, 2018.
  42. ↑ "Strobe Talbott to be first distinguished visitor at Buffett Institute". Northwestern University. October 13, 2017. Retrieved July 16, 2018.
  43. ↑ "FDA reserves course on a 4.2 Million no-bid grant to a former commissioner". The Washington Post . May 16, 2018. Retrieved June 16, 2018.
  44. ↑ "A Second Discussion with Hady Amr, Director, Brookings Institute Doha Center, Qatar". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. October 15, 2007. Retrieved July 9, 2018.
  45. ↑ Datta, Kanika (April 26, 2013). "Tea with BS: Strobe Talbott". Business Standard India. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  46. ↑ "Brookings India". Brookings India. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  47. ↑ "John R. Allen named next Brookings Institution president". Brookings Institution. October 4, 2017.
  48. ↑ "Brookings president resigns amid FBI foreign lobbying probe". MSN. June 12, 2022.
  49. ↑ "U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year (FY) 2019 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY 2018 to FY 2019". National Association of College and University Business Officers and TIAA. Retrieved February 28, 2020.
  50. ↑ "Brookings Annual Report". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. July 22, 2016. Archived from the original on August 14, 2016. Retrieved September 10, 2021.
  51. ↑ "Brookings Institution Press". Brookings.edu. Retrieved April 29, 2010.
  52. ↑ "About BPEA". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. August 15, 2016. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
  53. ↑ "The Brookings review Journal" . Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  54. ↑ "The Brookings Review on JSTOR". JSTOR . Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  55. ↑ West, Darrell M.; Kimball, Rick; Nathoo, Raffiq; Zwirn, Daniel; Ramat6=Gordon M., Vijaya; Goldstein; Moser, Joel H. (December 1, 2014). "Rebuilding America: The Role of Foreign Capital and Global Public Investors" (PDF). RichardAKimballJr.com. Governance Studies, Brookings Institution. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
  56. ↑ "Brookings Press Blog". Brookingspress.typepad.com. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved April 29, 2010.
  57. ↑ "Brookings Institution Press: Books". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved April 29, 2010.
  58. ↑ "Lawfare: Hard National Security Choices" . Retrieved July 5, 2020.
  59. ↑ "Brookings Institution History". Archived from the original on February 13, 2010.
  60. ↑ "Foreign Policy: The Think Tank Index". Archived from the original on May 20, 2009.
  61. ↑ "Global Go To Think Tank Index, 2011" (PDF). January 23, 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2013. Retrieved October 10, 2012.
  62. 1 2 Dolny, Michael (May–June 2006). "Study Finds First Drop in Think Tank Cites". Extra!. Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR).
  63. ↑ Groseclose, Tim; Milyo, Jeff (December 2004). "A Measure of Media Bias". Archived from the original on November 22, 2008.
  64. 1 2 Rich, Andrew (Spring 2006). "War of Ideas: Why Mainstream and Liberal Foundations and the Think Tanks they Support are Losing in the War of Ideas in American Politics" (PDF). Stanford Social Innovation Review. Stanford University.
  65. ↑ Dolny, Michael (April 2008). "The Incredible Shrinking Think Tank". gotothinktank.com. Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR). Archived from the original on January 22, 2012.
  66. ↑ Glaberson, William (November 16, 2008). "Closing Guantánamo may not be easy". The New York Times.
  67. ↑ Redburn, Tom (September 24, 2000). "ECONOMIC VIEW; Friedman And Keynes, Trading Pedestals". The New York Times.
  68. ↑ Saxon, Wolfgang (January 13, 2006). "Marshall A. Robinson, 83, Former Foundation Chief, Dies". The New York Times.
  69. ↑ Becker, Elizabeth (September 8, 1999). "Air Force's Newest Jet Fighter Is in Fierce Fight, in Capitol". The New York Times.
  70. ↑ "The Way to Save". The New York Times. February 20, 2006.
  71. ↑ "Mr. Obama's Jobs Plan". The Washington Post. December 9, 2009.
  72. ↑ Montgomery, Lori (June 21, 2007). "Stumping for Attention To Deficit Disorder". The Washington Post.
  73. ↑ Froomkin, Dan (November 13, 2006). "The Unbelievable Karl Rove". The Washington Post.
  74. ↑ Kessler, Glenn (April 15, 2002). "2003 Budget Completes Big Jump in Spending". The Washington Post.
  75. ↑ "Left-leaning' or 'Nonpartisan'?". Los Angeles Times . May 13, 2008. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
  76. ↑ Reynolds, Maura; Simon, Richard (January 17, 2008). "Parties Suggest They'd Yield for Stimulus Pact". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
  77. ↑ Meyer, Josh (February 2, 2008). "U.S. Won't Say Who Killed Militant". Los Angeles Times.
  78. ↑ Goldberg, Jonah (July 24, 2007). "A green light to genocide". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
  79. ↑ "The Other Think Tank". Time . September 19, 1977.
  80. ↑ "Economists Agree: Unemployment Will Stay High Through November". Newsweek . May 25, 2010.
  81. ↑ Epstein, Reid J. (November 14, 2011). "Jon Huntsman veers campaign to Brookings". Politico.
  82. ↑ "What's FAIR?". Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting. April 28, 2017. Retrieved December 14, 2018.
  83. ↑ Dolny, Michael (March–April 2002). "Think Tanks in a Time of Crisis". Extra!. Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR).
  84. ↑ Husseini, Sam (November–December 1998). "Brookings: The Establishment's Think Tank". fair.org. Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR). Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  85. ↑ Soley, Lawrence (1991). "Brookings: Stand-In for the Left". Extra!. Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR).
  86. ↑ Yglesias, Matthew (August 24, 2007). "Very Serious Indeed". The Atlantic .
  87. ↑ Greenwald, Glenn (August 12, 2007). "The Truth Behind the Pollack-O'Hanlon Trip to Iraq". Salon. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
  88. ↑ "Mark B. McClellan". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on March 14, 2012. Retrieved August 27, 2013.
  89. ↑ "Ron Haskins". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved August 27, 2013.
  90. ↑ "Martin S. Indyk". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on August 26, 2013. Retrieved August 27, 2013.
  91. ↑ "The Brookings Institution Experts". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved August 27, 2013.
  92. ↑ "Board Of Trustees". Brookings.edu. July 22, 2016. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
  93. ↑ "Brookings Institution: Total Contributions". opensecrets.org. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
  94. ↑ Dews, Fred (November 6, 2017). "Profiles of Brookings's leaders since 1927". Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on March 4, 2021. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
  95. ↑ Mazzetti, Mark (June 8, 2022). "Brookings Institution Puts President on Leave Amid Lobbying Inquiry". The New York Times.
  96. ↑ Risotto, Andrea (June 12, 2022). "News Release Brookings Leadership Update". www.brookings.edu. Retrieved June 16, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  97. ↑ "Amy Liu appointed interim president of Brookings". Brookings. July 5, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
  98. ↑ "Janet L. Yellen". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. February 2, 2018.
  99. ↑ "Ben S. Bernanke". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. July 4, 2016.
  100. ↑ "Donald Kohn". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. May 6, 2016.
  101. ↑ "Alice M. Rivlin". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. July 6, 2016.
  102. ↑ "Alan Blinder". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. February 10, 2020.
  103. ↑ "Jason Furman". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution.
  104. ↑ "Martin Neil Baily". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. March 31, 2016.
  105. ↑ "Sandra E. Black". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. January 23, 2017.
  106. ↑ "Jay Shambaugh". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. August 1, 2017.
  107. ↑ "James Stock". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. October 6, 2015.
  108. ↑ "Douglas W. Elmendorf". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution.
  109. ↑ "Arne Duncan". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. April 25, 2016.
  110. ↑ "Martin S. Indyk". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. May 13, 2016.
  111. ↑ "Susan M. Collins". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. January 11, 2013.
  112. ↑ "Tom Wheeler". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. June 22, 2017.
  113. ↑ "E.J. Dionne". brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. April 22, 2016.
  114. ↑ "William A. Galston". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. May 4, 2016.
  115. ↑ "Fiona Hill". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. May 4, 2013.
  116. ↑ Goldman, Adam; Savage, Charlie (November 4, 2021). "Authorities Arrest Analyst Who Contributed to Steele Dossier". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved November 13, 2021.
  117. ↑ "About the Brookings-Tsinghua Center for Public Policy". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
  118. ↑ "Brookings-Tsinghua Center". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
  119. ↑ "21st Century Defense Initiative". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved April 29, 2010.
  120. 1 2 "About the 21st Century Defense Initiative at Brookings". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved November 1, 2011.
  121. ↑ "Vanda Felbab-Brown". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved August 27, 2013.
  122. ↑ "21st Century Defense Initiative: Experts". Brookings.edu. Brookings Institution. Retrieved November 1, 2011.
  123. ↑ "About WashU at Brookings". Brookings. May 13, 2016. Retrieved August 19, 2019.
  124. ↑ "Anne T. And Robert M. Bass Center for Transformative Placemaking".
  125. ↑ "Research Programs, Centers, and Projects". Brookings Institution. Retrieved December 5, 2019.
  126. 1 2 3 4 Lipton, Eric (September 6, 2014). "Foreign Powers Buy Influence at Think Tanks". The New York Times. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
  127. ↑ "Longstanding Partners: Norway and Brookings". The New York Times. September 6, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
  128. 1 2 "The High North, Climate Change and Norway". The New York Times. September 6, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
  129. ↑ Stone Fish, Isaac (December 7, 2018). "Huawei's surprising ties to the Brookings Institution". The Washington Post . Retrieved August 4, 2019.
  130. ↑ Freeman, Ben (January 2020). Foreign Funding of Think Tanks in America (PDF) (Report). Center for International Policy. p. 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 1, 2020. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
  131. ↑ Suderman, Alan; Mustian, Jim (June 13, 2022). "Brookings president resigns amid FBI foreign lobbying probe". AP.
  132. ↑ "Trusting in Preservation". The Washington Post . November 24, 1979. Retrieved July 9, 2018.
  133. ↑ "Mali: Timbuktu heritage may be threatened, Unesco says". BBC News. April 3, 2012. Retrieved November 29, 2022.
  134. 1 2 "About". Timbuktu Renaissance. Retrieved November 29, 2022.
  135. 1 2 3 "The Timbuktu Renaissance". Google Arts & Culture . January 12, 2019. Retrieved November 29, 2022.
  136. ↑ "Timbuktu's 'Badass Librarians': Checking Out Books Under Al-Qaida's Nose". NPR.org. April 23, 2016. Retrieved November 29, 2022.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.