Beringia

Last updated
Beringia sea levels (blues) and land elevations (browns) measured in metres from 21,000 years ago to present Beringia land bridge-noaagov.gif
Beringia sea levels (blues) and land elevations (browns) measured in metres from 21,000 years ago to present

Beringia is defined today as the land and maritime area bounded on the west by the Lena River in Russia; on the east by the Mackenzie River in Canada; on the north by 72 degrees north latitude in the Chukchi Sea; and on the south by the tip of the Kamchatka Peninsula. [1] It includes the Chukchi Sea, the Bering Sea, the Bering Strait, the Chukchi and Kamchatka Peninsulas in Russia as well as Alaska in the United States and the Yukon in Canada.

Contents

The area includes land lying on the North American Plate and Siberian land east of the Chersky Range. At various times, it formed a land bridge referred to as the Bering land bridge, that was up to 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) wide at its greatest extent and which covered an area as large as British Columbia and Alberta together, [2] totaling approximately 1,600,000 square kilometres (620,000 square miles), allowing biological dispersal to occur between Asia and North America. Today, the only land that is visible from the central part of the Bering land bridge are the Diomede Islands, the Pribilof Islands of St. Paul and St. George, St. Lawrence Island, St. Matthew Island, and King Island. [1]

It is believed that a small human population of at most a few thousand arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum before expanding into the settlement of the Americas sometime after 16,500 years Before Present (YBP). [3] This would have occurred as the American glaciers blocking the way southward melted, [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] but before the bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 YBP. [9] [10]

Etymology

The term Beringia was coined by the Swedish botanist Eric Hultén in 1937, from the Danish explorer Vitus Bering. [11] During the ice ages, Beringia, like most of Siberia and all of North and Northeast China, was not glaciated because snowfall was very light. [12]

Geography

Bering land bridge - Wisconsin glaciation Beringia - late wisconsin glaciation.gif
Bering land bridge – Wisconsin glaciation

The remains of Late Pleistocene mammals that had been discovered on the Aleutians and islands in the Bering Sea at the close of the nineteenth century indicated that a past land connection might lie beneath the shallow waters between Alaska and Chukotka. The underlying mechanism was first thought to be tectonics, but by 1930 changes in the ice mass balance, leading to global sea-level fluctuations were viewed as the cause of the Bering land bridge. [13] [14] In 1937, Eric Hultén proposed that around the Aleutians and the Bering Strait region were tundra plants that had originally dispersed from a now-submerged plain between Alaska and Chukotka, which he named Beringia after the Dane Vitus Bering who had sailed into the strait in 1728. [15] [14] The American arctic geologist David Hopkins redefined Beringia to include portions of Alaska and Northeast Asia. Beringia was later regarded as extending from the Verkhoyansk Mountains in the west to the Mackenzie River in the east. [14] The distribution of plants in the genera Erythranthe and Pinus are good examples of this, as very similar genera members are found in Asia and the Americas. [16] [17]

During the Pleistocene epoch, global cooling led periodically to the expansion of glaciers and the lowering of sea levels. This created land connections in various regions around the globe. [18] Today, the average water depth of the Bering Strait is 40–50 m (130–160 ft); therefore the land bridge opened when the sea level dropped more than 50 m (160 ft) below the current level. [19] [20] A reconstruction of the sea-level history of the region indicated that a seaway existed from c.  135,000 – c. 70,000 YBP, a land bridge from c. 70,000 – c. 60,000 YBP, an intermittent connection from c. 60,000 – c. 30,000 YBP, a land bridge from c. 30,000 – c. 11,000 YBP, followed by a Holocene sea-level rise that reopened the strait. [21] [22] Post-glacial rebound has continued to raise some sections of the coast.

The Last Glacial Period caused a much lower global sea level Global sea levels during the last Ice Age.jpg
The Last Glacial Period caused a much lower global sea level

During the last glacial period, enough of the Earth's water became frozen in the great ice sheets covering North America and Europe to cause a drop in sea levels. For thousands of years the sea floors of many interglacial shallow seas were exposed, including those of the Bering Strait, the Chukchi Sea to the north, and the Bering Sea to the south. Other land bridges around the world have emerged and disappeared in the same way. Around 14,000 years ago, mainland Australia was linked to both New Guinea and Tasmania, the British Isles became an extension of continental Europe via the dry beds of the English Channel and North Sea, and the dry bed of the South China Sea linked Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to Indochina.

Refugium

Beringia precipitation 22,000 years ago Lgm ccsm4 beringia annual precipitation.png
Beringia precipitation 22,000 years ago

The last glacial period, commonly referred to as the "Ice Age", spanned 125,000 [23] –14,500  YBP [24] and was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age, which occurred during the last years of the Pleistocene era. [23] The Ice Age reached its peak during the Last Glacial Maximum, when ice sheets began advancing from 33,000 YBP and reached their maximum limits 26,500 YBP. Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere approximately 19,000 YBP and in Antarctica approximately 14,500 years YBP, which is consistent with evidence that glacial meltwater was the primary source for an abrupt rise in sea level 14,500 YBP [24] and the bridge was finally inundated around 11,000 YBP. [10] The fossil evidence from many continents points to the extinction of large animals, termed Pleistocene megafauna, near the end of the last glaciation. [25]

During the Ice Age a vast, cold and dry Mammoth steppe stretched from the arctic islands southwards to China, and from Spain eastwards across Eurasia and over the Bering land bridge into Alaska and the Yukon where it was blocked by the Wisconsin glaciation. Therefore, the flora and fauna of Beringia were more related to those of Eurasia rather than North America. Beringia received more moisture and intermittent maritime cloud cover from the north Pacific Ocean than the rest of the Mammoth steppe, including the dry environments on either side of it. This moisture supported a shrub-tundra habitat that provided an ecological refugium for plants and animals. [26] [27] In East Beringia 35,000 YBP, the northern arctic areas experienced temperatures 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) degrees warmer than today but the southern sub-Arctic regions were 2 °C (4 °F) degrees cooler. During the LGM 22,000 YBP the average summer temperature was 3–5 °C (5–9 °F) degrees cooler than today, with variations of 2.9 °C (5.2 °F) degrees cooler on the Seward Peninsula to 7.5 °C (13.5 °F) cooler in the Yukon. [28] In the driest and coldest periods of the Late Pleistocene, and possibly during the entire Pleistocene, moisture occurred along a north–south gradient with the south receiving the most cloud cover and moisture due to the air-flow from the North Pacific. [27]

In the Late Pleistocene, Beringia was a mosaic of biological communities. [29] [26] [30] Commencing from c. 57,000 YBP (MIS 3), steppe–tundra vegetation dominated large parts of Beringia with a rich diversity of grasses and herbs. [29] [26] [31] There were patches of shrub tundra with isolated refugia of larch (Larix) and spruce (Picea) forests with birch (Betula) and alder (Alnus) trees. [29] [30] [31] [32] It has been proposed that the largest and most diverse megafaunal community residing in Beringia at this time could only have been sustained in a highly diverse and productive environment. [33]

Duration of snow cover in days, East Beringia, 20000 years ago. Chelsa Trace 21ka variable bio/scd 200. Beringia 20000bp duration of snow cover days 1.png
Duration of snow cover in days, East Beringia, 20000 years ago. Chelsa Trace 21ka variable bio/scd 200.

Analysis at Chukotka on the Siberian edge of the land bridge indicated that from c. 57,000 – c. 15,000 YBP (MIS 3 to MIS 2) the environment was wetter and colder than the steppe–tundra to the east and west, with warming in parts of Beringia from c. 15,000 YBP. [34] These changes provided the most likely explanation for mammal migrations after c. 15,000 YBP, as the warming provided increased forage for browsers and mixed feeders. [35] At the beginning of the Holocene, some mesic habitat-adapted species left the refugium and spread westward into what had become tundra-vegetated northern Asia and eastward into northern North America. [27]

Beringia, 8000 years ago Beringia 8000bp 2.png
Beringia, 8000 years ago

The latest emergence of the land bridge was c. 70,000 years ago. However, from c. 24,000 – c. 13,000 YBP the Laurentide Ice Sheet fused with the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which blocked gene flow between Beringia (and Eurasia) and continental North America. [36] [37] [38] The Yukon corridor opened between the receding ice sheets c. 13,000 YBP, and this once again allowed gene flow between Eurasia and continental North America until the land bridge was finally closed by rising sea levels c. 10,000 YBP. [39] During the Holocene, many mesic-adapted species left the refugium and spread eastward and westward, while at the same time the forest-adapted species spread with the forests up from the south. The arid-adapted species were reduced to minor habitats or became extinct. [27]

The Mammut americanum (American mastodon) became extinct around 12,000-9,000 years ago due to human-related activities, climate change, or a combination of both. See Quaternary extinction event and Holocene extinction. High res mastodon rendering.jpg
The Mammut americanum (American mastodon) became extinct around 12,000–9,000 years ago due to human-related activities, climate change, or a combination of both. See Quaternary extinction event and Holocene extinction.

Beringia constantly transformed its ecosystem as the changing climate affected the environment, determining which plants and animals were able to survive. The land mass could be a barrier as well as a bridge: during colder periods, glaciers advanced and precipitation levels dropped. During warmer intervals, clouds, rain and snow altered soils and drainage patterns. Fossil remains show that spruce, birch and poplar once grew beyond their northernmost range today, indicating that there were periods when the climate was warmer and wetter. The environmental conditions were not homogenous in Beringia. Recent stable isotope studies of woolly mammoth bone collagen demonstrate that western Beringia (Siberia) was colder and drier than eastern Beringia (Alaska and Yukon), which was more ecologically diverse. [40]

Grey wolves suffered a species-wide population bottleneck (reduction) approximately 25,000 YBP during the Last Glacial Maximum. This was followed by a single population of modern wolves expanding out of their Beringia refuge to repopulate the wolf's former range, replacing the remaining Late Pleistocene wolf populations across Eurasia and North America. [41] [42] [43]

The extinct pine species Pinus matthewsii has been described from Pliocene sediments in the Yukon areas of the refugium. [44]

Beringian Gap

The existence of fauna endemic to the respective Siberian and North American portions of Beringia has led to the 'Beringian Gap' hypothesis, wherein an unconfirmed geographic factor blocked migration across the land bridge when it emerged. Beringia did not block the movement of most dry steppe-adapted large species such as saiga antelope, woolly mammoth, and caballid horses. [27] Notable restricted fauna include the woolly rhino in Siberia (which went no further east than the Anadyr River), and Arctodus simus , American badger, American kiang-like equids, Bootherium and Camelops in North America, with the existence of Homotherium being disputed in Late Pleistocene Siberia. The lack of mastodon and Megalonyx has been attributed to their inhabitation of Alaska and the Yukon being limited to interglacials. [45] [46] [47] However, ground sloth eDNA has potentially been recovered from Siberia. [48]

Human habitation and migration

Figure 2. Schematic illustration of maternal (mtDNA) gene-flow in and out of Beringia (long chronology, single source model). Map of gene flow in and out of Beringia.jpg
Figure 2. Schematic illustration of maternal (mtDNA) gene-flow in and out of Beringia (long chronology, single source model).
The Ancient Beringian (AB) is a specific archaeogenetic lineage, based on the genome of an infant found at the Upward Sun River site (dubbed USR1), dated to 11,500 years ago. [49] The AB lineage diverged from the Ancestral Native American (ANA) lineage about 20,000 years ago. The ANA lineage was estimated as having been formed between 20,000 and 25,000 years ago by a mixture of East Asian and Ancient North Eurasian lineages, consistent with the model of the peopling of the Americas via Beringia during the Last Glacial Maximum. [50]
Map showing the approximate location of the ice-free corridor along the Continental Divide, separating the Cordilleran and Laurentide ice sheets. Also indicated are the locations of the Clovis and Folsom Paleo-Indian sites. Peopling of America through Beringia.png
Map showing the approximate location of the ice-free corridor along the Continental Divide, separating the Cordilleran and Laurentide ice sheets. Also indicated are the locations of the Clovis and Folsom Paleo-Indian sites.

The peopling of the Americas began when Paleolithic hunter-gatherers (Paleo-Indians) entered North America from the North Asian Mammoth steppe via the Beringia land bridge, which had formed between northeastern Siberia and western Alaska due to the lowering of sea level during the Last Glacial Maximum (26,000 to 19,000 years ago). [51] These populations expanded south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet and spread rapidly southward, occupying both North and South America, by 12,000 to 14,000 years ago. [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] The earliest populations in the Americas, before roughly 10,000 years ago, are known as Paleo-Indians. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to Siberian populations by linguistic factors, the distribution of blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, such as DNA. [57] [58]

The precise date for the peopling of the Americas is a long-standing open question, and while advances in archaeology, Pleistocene geology, physical anthropology, and DNA analysis have progressively shed more light on the subject, significant questions remain unresolved. [59] [60] The "Clovis first theory" refers to the hypothesis that the Clovis culture represents the earliest human presence in the Americas about 13,000 years ago. [61] Evidence of pre-Clovis cultures has accumulated and pushed back the possible date of the first peopling of the Americas. [62] [63] [64] [65] Academics generally believe that humans reached North America south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet at some point between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago. [59] [62] [66] [67] [68] [69] Some new controversial archaeological evidence suggests the possibility that human arrival in the Americas may have occurred prior to the Last Glacial Maximum more than 20,000 years ago. [62] [70] [71] [72] [73]

Around 3,000 years ago, the progenitors of the Yupik peoples settled along both sides of the straits. [74] The governments of Russia and the United States announced a plan to formally establish "a transboundary area of shared Beringian heritage". Among other things this agreement would establish close ties between the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve and the Cape Krusenstern National Monument in the United States and Beringia National Park in Russia. [75]

Previous connections

Map shows the connection between North America and Asia during the Late Cretaceous period (~80Ma). Geodispersal at Bering Land Bridge.png
Map shows the connection between North America and Asia during the Late Cretaceous period (~80Ma).

Biogeographical evidence demonstrates previous connections between North America and Asia. [76] Similar dinosaur fossils occur both in Asia and in North America. [77] The dinosaur Saurolophus was found in both Mongolia and western North America. [78] Relatives of Troodon , Triceratops , and Tyrannosaurus rex all came from Asia. [79] [80]

The earliest Canis lupus specimen was a fossil tooth discovered at Old Crow, Yukon, Canada. The specimen was found in sediment dated 1 million YBP, [81] however the geological attribution of this sediment is questioned. [81] [82] Slightly younger specimens were discovered at Cripple Creek Sump, Fairbanks, Alaska, in strata dated 810,000 YBP. Both discoveries point to the origin of these wolves in eastern Beringia during the Middle Pleistocene. [81]

Fossil evidence also indicates an exchange of primates and plants between North America and Asia around 55.8 million years ago. [76] [83] [84] 20 million years ago, evidence in North America shows the last natural interchange of mammalian species. Some, like the ancient saber-toothed cats, have a recurring geographical range: Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America. [76]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pleistocene</span> First epoch of the Quaternary Period

The Pleistocene is the geological epoch that lasted from c. 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was finally confirmed in 2009 by the International Union of Geological Sciences, the cutoff of the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene was regarded as being 1.806 million years Before Present (BP). Publications from earlier years may use either definition of the period. The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period and also with the end of the Paleolithic age used in archaeology. The name is a combination of Ancient Greek πλεῖστος (pleîstos), meaning "most", and καινός, meaning "new".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quaternary</span> Third and current period of the Cenozoic Era, from 2.58 million years ago to the present

The Quaternary is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.58 million years ago to the present. As of 2023, the Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene ; a third epoch, the Anthropocene, has recently been proposed, but it is not officially recognised by the ICS.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dire wolf</span> Extinct species of the genus Aenocyon from North America

The dire wolf is an extinct canine. The dire wolf lived in the Americas during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene epochs. The species was named in 1858, four years after the first specimen had been found. Two subspecies are recognized: Aenocyon dirus guildayi and Aenocyon dirus dirus. The largest collection of its fossils has been obtained from the Rancho La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Last Glacial Period</span> Period of major glaciations of the Northern Hemisphere (115,000–12,000 years ago)

The Last Glacial Period (LGP), also known colloquially as the Last Ice Age or simply Ice Age, occurred from the end of the Last Interglacial to the end of the Younger Dryas, encompassing the period c. 115,000 – c. 11,700 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Steppe bison</span> Extinct species of mammal

The steppe bison or steppe wisent is an extinct species of bison. It was widely distributed across the mammoth steppe, ranging from Western Europe to eastern Beringia in North America during the Late Pleistocene. It is ancestral to all North American bison, including ultimately modern American bison. Three chronological subspecies, Bison priscus priscus, Bison priscus mediator, and Bison priscus gigas, have been suggested.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Last Glacial Maximum</span> Most recent time during the Last Glacial Period that ice sheets were at their greatest extent

The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also referred to as the Last Glacial Coldest Period, was the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period where ice sheets were at their greatest extent 26,000 and 20,000 years ago. Ice sheets covered much of Northern North America, Northern Europe, and Asia and profoundly affected Earth's climate by causing a major expansion of deserts, along with a large drop in sea levels.

<i>Panthera spelaea</i> Extinct species of lion

Panthera spelaea, also known as the cave lion or steppe lion, is an extinct Panthera species that most likely evolved in Europe after the third Cromerian interglacial stage, less than 600,000 years ago. Genetic analysis of ancient DNA has revealed that while closely related, it was a distinct species genetically isolated from the modern lion occurring in Africa and Asia, with the genetic divergence between the two species variously estimated between 1.9 million and 600,000 years ago. It is closely related and probably ancestral to the American lion. The species ranged from Western Europe to eastern Beringia in North America, and was a prominent member of the mammoth steppe fauna. It became extinct about 13,000 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mammoth steppe</span> Prehistoric biome

During the Last Glacial Maximum, the mammoth steppe, also known as steppe-tundra, was once the Earth's most extensive biome. It stretched east-to-west, from the Iberian Peninsula in the west of Europe, across Eurasia to North America, through Beringia and Canada; from north-to-south, the steppe reached from the arctic islands southward to China. The mammoth steppe was cold and dry, and relatively featureless, though topography and geography varied considerably throughout. Some areas featured rivers which, through erosion, naturally created gorges, gulleys, or small glens. The continual glacial recession and advancement over millennia contributed more to the formation of larger valleys and different geographical features. Overall, however, the steppe is known to be flat and expansive grassland. The vegetation was dominated by palatable, high-productivity grasses, herbs and willow shrubs.

The Chibanian, widely known as the Middle Pleistocene, is an age in the international geologic timescale or a stage in chronostratigraphy, being a division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. The Chibanian name was officially ratified in January 2020. It is currently estimated to span the time between 0.770 Ma and 0.126 Ma, also expressed as 770–126 ka. It includes the transition in palaeoanthropology from the Lower to the Middle Paleolithic over 300 ka.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Late Pleistocene</span> Third division (unofficial) of the Pleistocene Epoch

The Late Pleistocene is an unofficial age in the international geologic timescale in chronostratigraphy, also known as the upper Pleistocene from a stratigraphic perspective. It is intended to be the fourth division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. It is currently defined as the time between c. 129,000 and c. 11,700 years ago. The late Pleistocene equates to the proposed Tarantian Age of the geologic time scale, preceded by the officially ratified Chibanian. The beginning of the Late Pleistocene is the transition between the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period and the beginning of the Last Interglacial around 130,000 years ago. The Late Pleistocene ends with the termination of the Younger Dryas, some 11,700 years ago when the Holocene Epoch began.

The Late Glacial Interstadial (LGI) c. 14,670 to c. 12,890 BP, also called the Bølling–Allerød interstadial, represents the first pronounced warming since the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Human populations, which had previously been forced into refuge areas, gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere's Eurasian landmass.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Late Pleistocene extinctions</span> Extinction event occurring during the late Quaternary period

The Late Pleistocene to the beginning of the Holocene saw numerous extinctions of predominantly megafaunal animal species, which resulted in a collapse in faunal density and diversity across the globe. The extinctions during the Late Pleistocene are differentiated from previous extinctions by the widespread absence of ecological succession to replace these extinct megafaunal species, and the regime shift of previously established faunal relationships and habitats as a consequence. The timing and severity of the extinctions varied by region and are thought to have been driven by varying combinations of human and climatic factors. Human impact on megafauna populations is thought to have been driven by hunting ("overkill"), as well as possibly environmental alteration. The relative importance of human vs climatic factors in the extinctions has been the subject of long-running controversy.

<i>Arctodus</i> Extinct genus of bears

Arctodus is an extinct genus of short-faced bear that inhabited North America during the Pleistocene. There are two recognized species: the lesser short-faced bear and the giant short-faced bear. Of these species, A. simus was larger, is known from more complete remains, and is considered one of the most charismatic of North America's megafauna. A. pristinus was largely restricted to the Early Pleistocene of the Eastern United States, whereas A. simus had a broader range, with most finds being from the Late Pleistocene of the United States, Mexico and Canada. A. simus evolved from A. pristinus, but both species likely overlapped in the Middle Pleistocene. Both species are relatively rare in the fossil record.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beringian wolf</span> Extinct type of wolf that lived during the Ice Age in Alaska, Yukon, and northern British Columbia

The Beringian wolf is an extinct population of wolf that lived during the Ice Age. It inhabited what is now modern-day Alaska, Yukon, and northern British Columbia. Some of these wolves survived well into the Holocene. The Beringian wolf is an ecomorph of the gray wolf and has been comprehensively studied using a range of scientific techniques, yielding new information on their prey species and feeding behaviors. It has been determined that these wolves are morphologically distinct from modern North American wolves and genetically basal to most modern and extinct wolves. The Beringian wolf has not been assigned a subspecies classification and its relationship with the extinct European cave wolf is not clear.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pleistocene wolf</span> Extinct lineage of the grey wolf

The Pleistocene wolf, also referred to as the Late Pleistocene wolf, is an extinct lineage or ecomorph of the grey wolf. It was a Late Pleistocene 129 Ka – early Holocene 11 Ka hypercarnivore. While comparable in size to a large modern grey wolf, it possessed a shorter, broader palate with large carnassial teeth relative to its overall skull size, allowing it to prey and scavenge on Pleistocene megafauna. Such an adaptation is an example of phenotypic plasticity. It was once distributed across the northern Holarctic. Phylogenetic evidence indicates that despite being much smaller than the prehistoric wolf, the Japanese wolf, which went extinct in the early 20th century, was of a Pleistocene wolf lineage, thus extending its survival to several millennia after its previous estimated extinction around 7,500 years ago.

The Upward Sun River site, or Xaasaa Na’, is a Late Pleistocene archaeological site associated with the Paleo-Arctic tradition, located in the Tanana River Valley, Alaska. Dated to around 11,500 BP, Upward Sun River is the site of the oldest human remains discovered on the American side of Beringia. The site was first discovered in 2006.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolution of the wolf</span>

The evolution of the wolf occurred over a geologic time scale of at least 300 thousand years. The grey wolf Canis lupus is a highly adaptable species that is able to exist in a range of environments and which possesses a wide distribution across the Holarctic. Studies of modern grey wolves have identified distinct sub-populations that live in close proximity to each other. This variation in sub-populations is closely linked to differences in habitat – precipitation, temperature, vegetation, and prey specialization – which affect cranio-dental plasticity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peopling of the Americas</span> Prehistoric migration from Asia to the Americas

The peopling of the Americas began when Paleolithic hunter-gatherers (Paleo-Indians) entered North America from the North Asian Mammoth steppe via the Beringia land bridge, which had formed between northeastern Siberia and western Alaska due to the lowering of sea level during the Last Glacial Maximum. These populations expanded south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet and spread rapidly southward, occupying both North and South America, by 12,000 to 14,000 years ago. The earliest populations in the Americas, before roughly 10,000 years ago, are known as Paleo-Indians. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to Siberian populations by linguistic factors, the distribution of blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, such as DNA.

The coastal migration hypothesis is one of two leading hypotheses about the settlement of the Americas at the time of the Last Glacial Maximum. It proposes one or more migration routes involving watercraft, via the Kurile island chain, along the coast of Beringia and the archipelagos off the Alaskan-British Columbian coast, continuing down the coast to Central and South America. The alternative is the hypothesis solely by interior routes, which assumes migration along an ice-free corridor between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum.

Jacques Cinq-Mars Born: 1941/42 was a Canadian archaeologist specializing in Canada, especially Yukon. Cinq-Mars excavated the Bluefish Caves site in the Old Crow area from 1977 to 1987. His careful research showed the presence of humans in the Americas long before Clovis. His dates for the site are around 24,000 BP. Cinq-Mars began his work in the Old Crow area early in the 1970s. Although the Clovis-first hypothesis has substantially fallen out of favor, some archaeologists question the 24,000 BP date for human presence at Blue Fish Caves.

References

  1. 1 2 Shared Beringian Heritage Program. "What is Beringia?". National Park Service, US Department of the Interior.
  2. ↑ Dr Barbara Winter (2005). "A Journey to a New Land". www.sfu.museum. virtualmuseum.ca. Archived from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 19 May 2015.
  3. ↑ "BBC Earth | Home". www.bbcearth.com.
  4. ↑ Wang, Sijia; Lewis, C. M. Jr.; Jakobsson, M.; Ramachandran, S.; Ray, N.; et al. (2007). "Genetic Variation and Population Structure in Native Americans". PLOS Genetics . 3 (11): e185. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.0030185 . PMC   2082466 . PMID   18039031.
  5. ↑ Goebel, Ted; Waters, Michael R.; O'Rourke, Dennis H. (2008). "The Late Pleistocene Dispersal of Modern Humans in the Americas". Science . 319 (5869): 1497–1502. Bibcode:2008Sci...319.1497G. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.398.9315 . doi:10.1126/science.1153569. PMID   18339930. S2CID   36149744.
  6. ↑ Fagundes, Nelson J. R.; et al. (2008). "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas". American Journal of Human Genetics . 82 (3): 583–92. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013. PMC   2427228 . PMID   18313026.
  7. ↑ Tamm, Erika; et al. (2007). Carter, Dee (ed.). "Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders". PLoS ONE . 2 (9): e829. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..829T. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000829 . PMC   1952074 . PMID   17786201.
  8. ↑ Achilli, A.; et al. (2008). MacAulay, Vincent (ed.). "The Phylogeny of the Four Pan-American MtDNA Haplogroups: Implications for Evolutionary and Disease Studies". PLOS ONE. 3 (3): e1764. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.1764A. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001764 . PMC   2258150 . PMID   18335039.
  9. ↑ Elias, Scott A.; Short, Susan K.; Nelson, C. Hans; Birks, Hilary H. (1996). "Life and times of the Bering land bridge". Nature . 382 (6586): 60. Bibcode:1996Natur.382...60E. doi:10.1038/382060a0. S2CID   4347413.
  10. 1 2 Jakobsson, Martin; Pearce, Christof; Cronin, Thomas M.; Backman, Jan; Anderson, Leif G.; Barrientos, Natalia; Björk, Göran; Coxall, Helen; De Boer, Agatha; Mayer, Larry A.; Mörth, Carl-Magnus; Nilsson, Johan; Rattray, Jayne E.; Stranne, Christian; Semilietov, Igor; O'Regan, Matt (2017). "Post-glacial flooding of the Beringia Land Bridge dated to 11,000 cal yrs YBP based on new geophysical and sediment records". Climate of the Past Discussions: 1–22. doi: 10.5194/cp-2017-11 .
  11. ↑ John F. Hoffecker; Scott A. Elias (2007). Human Ecology of Beringia. Columbia University Press. p. 3. ISBN   978-0-231-13060-8 . Retrieved 2016-04-10.
  12. ↑ Karel Hendrik Voous (1973). Proceedings of the 15th International Ornithological Congress, The Hague, The Netherlands 30 August–5 September 1970. Brill Archive. p. 33. ISBN   978-90-04-03551-5 . Retrieved 2016-04-10.
  13. ↑ Hopkins DM. 1967. Introduction. In: Hopkins DM, editor. The Bering land bridge. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 1–6.
  14. 1 2 3 Hoffecker, John F.; Elias, Scott A.; O'Rourke, Dennis H.; Scott, G. Richard; Bigelow, Nancy H. (2016). "Beringia and the global dispersal of modern humans". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 25 (2): 64–78. doi:10.1002/evan.21478. PMID   27061035. S2CID   3519553.
  15. ↑ Hultén E. 1937. Outline of the history of arctic and boreal biota during the Quaternary Period. New York: Lehre J. Cramer.
  16. ↑ Nesom, G. L. (2011). "A New Species of Erythranthe (Phrymaceae) From China" (PDF). Phytoneuron. 7: 1–5. ISSN   2153-733X.
  17. ↑ Brubaker, Linda B.; Anderson, Patricia; Edwards, Mary E.; Anatoly, Lozhkin (2005). "Beringia as a glacial refugium for boreal trees and shrubs: New perspectives from mapped pollen data". Journal of Biogeography. 32 (5): 833–48. Bibcode:2005JBiog..32..833B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2004.01203.x. S2CID   86019879.
  18. ↑ [Lowe JJ, Walker M. 1997 Reconstructing quaternary environments, 2nd edn. Harlow, UK: Prentice Hall.
  19. ↑ Miller, K.G.; Kominz, M.A.; Browning, J.V.; Wright, J.D.; Mountain, G.S.; Katz, M.E.; Sugarman, P.J.; Cramer, B.S.; Christie-Blick, N.; Pekar, S.F. (2005). "The Phanerozoic record of global sea-level change". Science. 310 (5752): 1293–98. Bibcode:2005Sci...310.1293M. doi:10.1126/science.1116412. PMID   16311326. S2CID   7439713.
  20. ↑ Siddall, M.; Rohling, E.J.; Almogi-Labin, A.; Hemleben, C.; Eischner, D.; Schmelzer, I; Smeed, D.A. (2003). "Sealevel fluctuations during the last glacial cycle". Nature. 423 (6942): 853–58. Bibcode:2003Natur.423..853S. doi:10.1038/nature01690. PMID   12815427. S2CID   4420155.
  21. ↑ Hu, Aixue; Meehl, Gerald A.; Otto-Bliesner, Bette L.; Waelbroeck, Claire; Han, Weiqing; Loutre, Marie-France; Lambeck, Kurt; Mitrovica, Jerry X.; Rosenbloom, Nan (2010). "Influence of Bering Strait flow and North Atlantic circulation on glacial sea-level changes". Nature Geoscience. 3 (2): 118. Bibcode:2010NatGe...3..118H. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.391.8727 . doi:10.1038/ngeo729.
  22. ↑ Meiri, M.; Lister, A. M.; Collins, M. J.; Tuross, N.; Goebel, T.; Blockley, S.; Zazula, G. D.; Van Doorn, N.; Dale Guthrie, R.; Boeskorov, G. G.; Baryshnikov, G. F.; Sher, A.; Barnes, I. (2013). "Faunal record identifies Bering isthmus conditions as constraint to end-Pleistocene migration to the New World". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 281 (1776): 20132167. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.2167. PMC   3871309 . PMID   24335981.
  23. 1 2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UN) (2007). "IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007 – Palaeoclimatic Perspective". The Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 2015-10-30. Retrieved 2017-05-04.
  24. 1 2 Clark, P. U.; Dyke, A. S.; Shakun, J. D.; Carlson, A. E.; Clark, J.; Wohlfarth, B.; Mitrovica, J. X.; Hostetler, S. W.; McCabe, A. M. (2009). "The Last Glacial Maximum". Science. 325 (5941): 710–14. Bibcode:2009Sci...325..710C. doi:10.1126/science.1172873. PMID   19661421. S2CID   1324559.
  25. ↑ Elias, S.A.; Schreve, D. (2016) [2013]. "Late Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinctions" (PDF). Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science (in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, pp. 3202–17). pp. 700–712. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.10283-0. ISBN   978-0-12-409548-9. S2CID   130031864. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-12-20. Retrieved 2017-05-04.
  26. 1 2 3 Elias SA, Crocker B. 2008 The Bering land bridge: a moisture barrier to the dispersal of steppe-tundra biota? Q. Sci. Rev. 27, 2473–83
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 Guthrie RD. 2001 Origin and causes of the mammoth steppe: a story of cloud cover, woolly mammal tooth pits, buckles, and inside-out Beringia. Q. Sci. Rev. 20, 549–74.
  28. ↑ Elias, S.A.; Brigham-Grette, J. (2007). "GLACIATIONS Late Pleistocene Events in Beringia" (PDF). Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science. p. 1057. doi:10.1016/B0-44-452747-8/00132-0. ISBN   9780444527479 . Retrieved 2 May 2017.
  29. 1 2 3 Hoffecker JF, Elias SA. 2007 Human ecology of Beringia. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
  30. 1 2 Brigham-Grette J, Lozhkin AV, Anderson PM, Glushkova OY. 2004 Paleoenvironmental conditions in Western Beringia before and during the Last Glacial Maximum. In Entering America, Northeast Asia and Beringia Before the Last Glacial Maximum (ed. Madsen DB), pp. 29–61. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press
  31. 1 2 Sher AV, Kuzmina SA, Kuznetsova TV, Sulerzhitsky LD. 2005 New insights into the Weichselian environment and climate of the East Siberian Arctic, derived from fossil insects, plants, and mammals. Q. Sci. Rev. 24, 533–69.
  32. ↑ Anderson PH, Lozhkin AV. 2001 The Stage 3 interstadial complex (Karginskii/middle Wisconsinan interval) of Beringia: variations in paleoenvironments and implications for paleoclimatic interpretations. Q. Sci. Rev. 20, 93–125
  33. ↑ Guthrie RD. 1982 Mammals of the mammoth steppe as paleoenvironmental indicators. In Paleoecology of Beringia (eds Hopkins DM, Matthews JV, Schweger CE, Young SB), pp. 307–24. New York: Academic Press
  34. ↑ Kuzmina SA, Sher AV, Edwards ME, Haile J, Yan EV, Kotov AV, Willerslev E. 2011 The late Pleistocene environment of the Eastern West Beringia based on the principal section at the Main River, Chukotka. Q. Sci. Rev. 30, 2091–2106
  35. ↑ Meiri, M.; Lister, A. M.; Collins, M. J.; Tuross, N.; Goebel, T.; Blockley, S.; Zazula, G. D.; Van Doorn, N.; Dale Guthrie, R.; Boeskorov, G. G.; Baryshnikov, G. F.; Sher, A.; Barnes, I. (2013). "Faunal record identifies Bering isthmus conditions as constraint to end-Pleistocene migration to the New World". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 281 (1776): 20132167. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.2167. PMC   3871309 . PMID   24335981.
  36. ↑ Burns, J.A. (2010). "Mammalian faunal dynamics in Late Pleistocene, Alberta, Canada". Quaternary International. 217 (1–2): 37–42. Bibcode:2010QuInt.217...37B. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2009.08.003.
  37. ↑ Gowan, E.J. (2013) An assessment of the minimum timing of ice free conditions of the western Laurentide Ice Sheet. Quaternary Science Review, 75, 100–13.
  38. ↑ Rabassa, J.; Ponce, J.F. (2013). "The Heinrich and Dansgaard-Oeschger climatic events during Marine Isotopic Stage 3:searching for appropriate times for human colonization of the America". Quaternary International. 299: 94–105. Bibcode:2013QuInt.299...94R. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2013.04.023. hdl:11336/26736.
  39. ↑ Koblmüller, Stephan; Vilà, Carles; Lorente-Galdos, Belen; Dabad, Marc; Ramirez, Oscar; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Wayne, Robert K.; Leonard, Jennifer A. (2016). "Whole mitochondrial genomes illuminate ancient intercontinental dispersals of grey wolves (Canis lupus)". Journal of Biogeography. 43 (9): 1728. Bibcode:2016JBiog..43.1728K. doi:10.1111/jbi.12765. S2CID   88740690.
  40. ↑ Szpak, Paul; et al. (2010). "Regional differences in bone collagen δ13C and δ15N of Pleistocene mammoths: Implications for paleoecology of the mammoth steppe". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology . 286 (1–2): 88–96. Bibcode:2010PPP...286...88S. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.12.009.
  41. ↑ Loog, Liisa; Thalmann, Olaf; Sinding, Mikkel-Holger S.; Schuenemann, Verena J.; Perri, Angela; Germonpré, Mietje; Bocherens, Herve; Witt, Kelsey E.; Samaniego Castruita, Jose A.; Velasco, Marcela S.; Lundstrøm, Inge K.C.; Wales, Nathan; Sonet, Gontran; Frantz, Laurent; Schroeder, Hannes; Budd, Jane; Jimenez, Elodie-Laure; Fedorov, Sergey; Gasparyan, Boris; Kandel, Andrew W.; Lázničková-Galetová, Martina; Napierala, Hannes; Uerpmann, Hans-Peter; Nikolskiy, Pavel A.; Pavlova, Elena Y.; Pitulko, Vladimir V.; Herzig, Karl-Heinz; Malhi, Ripan S.; Willerslev, Eske; et al. (2019). "Ancient DNA suggests modern wolves trace their origin to a late Pleistocene expansion from Beringia". Molecular Ecology. 29 (9): 1596–1610. doi: 10.1111/mec.15329 . PMC   7317801 . PMID   31840921.
  42. ↑ Werhahn, Geraldine; Senn, Helen; Ghazali, Muhammad; Karmacharya, Dibesh; Sherchan, Adarsh Man; Joshi, Jyoti; Kusi, Naresh; López-Bao, José Vincente; Rosen, Tanya; Kachel, Shannon; Sillero-Zubiri, Claudio; MacDonald, David W. (2018). "The unique genetic adaptation of the Himalayan wolf to high-altitudes and consequences for conservation". Global Ecology and Conservation. 16: e00455. doi: 10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00455 .
  43. ↑ Schweizer, Rena M.; Wayne, Robert K. (2020). "Illuminating the mysteries of wolf history". Molecular Ecology. 29 (9): 1589–91. Bibcode:2020MolEc..29.1589S. doi: 10.1111/MEC.15438 . PMID   32286714.
  44. ↑ McKown, A.D.; Stockey, R.A.; Schweger, C.E. (2002). "A New Species of Pinus Subgenus Pinus Subsection Contortae From Pliocene Sediments of Ch'Ijee's Bluff, Yukon Territory, Canada". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 163 (4): 687–697. doi:10.1086/340425. S2CID   86234947.
  45. ↑ Stuart, Anthony J.; Lister, Adrian M. (2012-09-19). "Extinction chronology of the woolly rhinoceros Coelodonta antiquitatis in the context of late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in northern Eurasia". Quaternary Science Reviews. 51: 1–17. Bibcode:2012QSRv...51....1S. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.06.007. ISSN   0277-3791.
  46. ↑ "Beringia: Lost World of the Ice Age (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2022-06-09.
  47. ↑ Blinnikov, Mikhail S.; Gaglioti, Benjamin V.; Walker, Donald A.; Wooller, Matthew J.; Zazula, Grant D. (2011-10-01). "Pleistocene graminoid-dominated ecosystems in the Arctic". Quaternary Science Reviews. 30 (21): 2906–2929. Bibcode:2011QSRv...30.2906B. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.07.002. ISSN   0277-3791.
  48. ↑ Courtin, Jérémy; Perfumo, Amedea; Andreev, Andrei A.; Opel, Thomas; Stoof-Leichsenring, Kathleen R.; Edwards, Mary E.; Murton, Julian B.; Herzschuh, Ulrike (July 2022). "Pleistocene glacial and interglacial ecosystems inferred from ancient DNA analyses of permafrost sediments from Batagay megaslump, East Siberia". Environmental DNA. 4 (6): 1265–1283. doi:10.1002/edn3.336. ISSN   2637-4943.
  49. ↑ Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor; Potter, Ben A.; Vinner, Lasse; Steinrücken, Matthias; Rasmussen, Simon; Terhorst, Jonathan; Kamm, John A.; Albrechtsen, Anders; Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo; Sikora, Martin; Reuther, Joshua D.; Irish, Joel D.; Malhi, Ripan S.; Orlando, Ludovic; Song, Yun S.; Nielsen, Rasmus; Meltzer, David J.; Willerslev, Eske (2018), "Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans", Nature, 553 (7687), Macmillan Publishers Limited: 203–207, Bibcode:2018Natur.553..203M, doi:10.1038/nature25173, PMID   29323294, S2CID   4454580 , retrieved January 3, 2018
  50. ↑ Confidence intervals given in Moreno-Mayar et al. (2018):
  51. ↑ Pringle, Heather (March 8, 2017). "What Happens When an Archaeologist Challenges Mainstream Scientific Thinking?". Smithsonian .
  52. ↑ Fagan, Brian M. & Durrani, Nadia (2016). World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction. Routledge. p. 124. ISBN   978-1-317-34244-1.
  53. ↑ Goebel, Ted; Waters, Michael R.; O'Rourke, Dennis H. (2008). "The Late Pleistocene dispersal of modern humans in the Americas" (PDF). Science . 319 (5869): 1497–1502. Bibcode:2008Sci...319.1497G. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.398.9315 . doi:10.1126/science.1153569. PMID   18339930. S2CID   36149744. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2010-02-05.
  54. ↑ Zimmer, Carl (January 3, 2018). "In the Bones of a Buried Child, Signs of a Massive Human Migration to the Americas". The New York Times . Retrieved January 3, 2018.
  55. ↑ Moreno-Mayar, JV; Potter, BA; Vinner, L; et al. (2018). "Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans" (PDF). Nature . 553 (7687): 203–207. Bibcode:2018Natur.553..203M. doi:10.1038/nature25173. PMID   29323294. S2CID   4454580.
  56. ↑ Núñez Castillo, Mélida Inés (2021-12-20). Ancient genetic landscape of archaeological human remains from Panama, South America and Oceania described through STR genotype frequencies and mitochondrial DNA sequences. Dissertation (doctoralThesis). doi: 10.53846/goediss-9012 . S2CID   247052631.
  57. ↑ Ash, Patricia J. & Robinson, David J. (2011). The Emergence of Humans: An Exploration of the Evolutionary Timeline. John Wiley & Sons. p. 289. ISBN   978-1-119-96424-7.
  58. ↑ Roberts, Alice (2010). The Incredible Human Journey. A&C Black. pp. 101–103. ISBN   978-1-4088-1091-0.
  59. 1 2 Null (2022-06-27). "Peopling of the Americas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . Retrieved 2022-12-19.
  60. ↑ Waguespack, Nicole (2012). "Early Paleoindians, from Colonization to Folsom". In Timothy R. Pauketat (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology. Oxford University Press. pp. 86–95. ISBN   978-0-19-538011-8.
  61. ↑ Surovell, T. A.; Allaun, S. A.; Gingerich, J. A. M.; Graf, K. E.; Holmes, C. D. (2022). "Late Date of human arrival to North America". PLOS ONE. 17 (4): e0264092. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264092 . PMC   9020715 . PMID   35442993.
  62. 1 2 3 Yasinski, Emma (2022-05-02). "New Evidence Complicates the Story of the Peopling of the Americas". The Scientist Magazine. Retrieved 2022-12-19.
  63. ↑ Ardelean, Ciprian F.; Becerra-Valdivia, Lorena; Pedersen, Mikkel Winther; Schwenninger, Jean-Luc; Oviatt, Charles G.; Macías-Quintero, Juan I.; Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin; Sikora, Martin; Ocampo-Díaz, Yam Zul E.; Rubio-Cisneros, Igor I.; Watling, Jennifer G.; De Medeiros, Vanda B.; De Oliveira, Paulo E.; Barba-Pingarón, Luis; Ortiz-Butrón, Agustín; Blancas-Vázquez, Jorge; Rivera-González, Irán; Solís-Rosales, Corina; Rodríguez-Ceja, María; Gandy, Devlin A.; Navarro-Gutierrez, Zamara; de la Rosa-Díaz, Jesús J.; Huerta-Arellano, Vladimir; Marroquín-Fernández, Marco B.; Martínez-Riojas, L. Martin; López-Jiménez, Alejandro; Higham, Thomas; Willerslev, Eske (2020). "Evidence of human occupation in Mexico around the Last Glacial Maximum". Nature. 584 (7819): 87–92. Bibcode:2020Natur.584...87A. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2509-0. PMID   32699412. S2CID   220697089.
  64. ↑ Becerra-Valdivia, Lorena; Higham, Thomas (2020). "The timing and effect of the earliest human arrivals in North America". Nature. 584 (7819): 93–97. Bibcode:2020Natur.584...93B. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2491-6. PMID   32699413. S2CID   220715918.
  65. ↑ Gruhn, Ruth (22 July 2020). "Evidence grows that peopling of the Americas began more than 20,000 years ago". Nature. 584 (7819): 47–48. Bibcode:2020Natur.584...47G. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-02137-3. PMID   32699366. S2CID   220717778.
  66. ↑ Spencer Wells (2006). Deep Ancestry: Inside the Genographic Project. National Geographic Books. pp. 222–. ISBN   978-0-7922-6215-2. OCLC   1031966951.
  67. ↑ John H. Relethford (17 January 2017). 50 Great Myths of Human Evolution: Understanding Misconceptions about Our Origins. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 192–. ISBN   978-0-470-67391-1. OCLC   1238190784.
  68. ↑ H. James Birx, ed. (10 June 2010). 21st Century Anthropology: A Reference Handbook. SAGE Publications. ISBN   978-1-4522-6630-5. OCLC   1102541304.
  69. ↑ John E Kicza; Rebecca Horn (3 November 2016). Resilient Cultures: America's Native Peoples Confront European Colonialization 1500-1800 (2 ed.). Routledge. ISBN   978-1-315-50987-7.
  70. ↑ Baisas, Laura (November 16, 2022). "Scientists still are figuring out how to age the ancient footprints in White Sands National Park". Popular Science. Retrieved September 18, 2023.
  71. ↑ Somerville, Andrew D.; Casar, Isabel; Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquín (2021). "New AMS Radiocarbon Ages from the Preceramic Levels of Coxcatlan Cave, Puebla, Mexico: A Pleistocene Occupation of the Tehuacan Valley?". Latin American Antiquity. 32 (3): 612–626. doi: 10.1017/laq.2021.26 .
  72. ↑ Chatters, James C.; Potter, Ben A.; Prentiss, Anna Marie; Fiedel, Stuart J.; Haynes, Gary; Kelly, Robert L.; Kilby, J. David; Lanoë, François; Holland-Lulewicz, Jacob; Miller, D. Shane; Morrow, Juliet E.; Perri, Angela R.; Rademaker, Kurt M.; Reuther, Joshua D.; Ritchison, Brandon T.; Sanchez, Guadalupe; Sánchez-Morales, Ismael; Spivey-Faulkner, S. Margaret; Tune, Jesse W.; Haynes, C. Vance (October 23, 2021). "Evaluating Claims of Early Human Occupation at Chiquihuite Cave, Mexico". PaleoAmerica. 8 (1). Informa UK Limited: 1–16. doi:10.1080/20555563.2021.1940441. ISSN   2055-5563. S2CID   239853925.
  73. ↑ Bryant, Vaughn M. Jr. (1998). "Pre-Clovis". In Guy Gibbon; et al. (eds.). Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: An Encyclopedia. Garland reference library of the humanities. Vol. 1537. pp. 682–683. ISBN   978-0-8153-0725-9.
  74. ↑ "A Study of the Yupik People". Kibin. Retrieved Feb 21, 2023.
  75. ↑ Llanos, Miguel (21 September 2012). "Ancient land of 'Beringia' gets protection from US, Russia". NBC News . Archived from the original on 23 September 2012.
  76. 1 2 3 4 "Fig. 1. Biogeographic connections of the Beringian region through time..." ResearchGate. Retrieved 2023-02-21.
  77. ↑ Hunt, Katie (May 6, 2020). "Arctic dinosaur may have crossed between Asia and America to dominate the north". CNN. Retrieved Jan 17, 2023.
  78. ↑ Norell, M. 2019. SAUROLOPHUS OSBORNI. The World of Dinosaurs: An Illustrated Tour. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 218-219.
  79. ↑ Fiorillo, Anthony R. (2014-05-05). "Dinosaurs of Arctic Alaska". Scientific American. 23 (2s). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 54–61. doi:10.1038/scientificamericandinosaurs0514-54. ISSN   1936-1513.
  80. ↑ Fiorillo, Anthony R. (2004). "The Dinosaurs of Arctic Alaska". Scientific American. 291 (6). Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc.: 84–91. Bibcode:2004SciAm.291f..84F. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1204-84. ISSN   0036-8733. JSTOR   26060803. PMID   15597984 . Retrieved 2023-02-21.
  81. 1 2 3 Tedford, Richard H.; Wang, Xiaoming; Taylor, Beryl E. (2009). "Phylogenetic Systematics of the North American Fossil Caninae (Carnivora: Canidae)" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 325: 1–218. doi:10.1206/574.1. hdl:2246/5999. S2CID   83594819.
  82. ↑ Westgate, John A; Pearce, G. William; Preece, Shari J; Schweger, Charles E; Morlan, Richard E; Pearce, Nicholas J.G; Perkins, T. William (2017). "Tephrochronology, magnetostratigraphy and mammalian faunas of Middle and Early Pleistocene sediments at two sites on the Old Crow River, northern Yukon Territory, Canada". Quaternary Research. 79: 75–85. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2012.09.003. S2CID   140572760.
  83. ↑ Marris, Emma (March 3, 2008). "How primates crossed continents". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2008.637 – via www.nature.com.
  84. ↑ Jiang, Dechun; Klaus, Sebastian; Zhang, Ya-Ping; Hillis, David M; Li, Jia-Tang (15 March 2019). "Asymmetric biotic interchange across the Bering land bridge between Eurasia and North America". National Science Review. 6 (4): 739–745. doi:10.1093/nsr/nwz035. eISSN   2053-714X. ISSN   2095-5138. PMC   8291635 . PMID   34691929.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.