Late Pleistocene

Last updated

Late/Upper Pleistocene
0.129 – 0.0117 Ma
Ꞓ
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
↓
Chronology
Etymology
Name formalityInformal
Proposed name(s)Tarantian
Usage information
Celestial body Earth
Regional usageGlobal (ICS)
Time scale(s) usedICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unit Age
Stratigraphic unit Stage
Time span formalityFormal
Lower boundary definitionNot formally defined
Lower boundary definition candidatesMarine Isotope Substage 5e
Lower boundary GSSP candidate section(s)None
Upper boundary definitionEnd of the Younger Dryas stadial
Upper boundary GSSP NGRIP2 ice core, Greenland
75°06′00″N42°19′12″W / 75.1000°N 42.3200°W / 75.1000; -42.3200
Upper GSSP ratified14 June 2018 (as base of Greenlandian) [3] [4]
Millennia:
Centuries:
  • 110th century BC
  • 109th century BC
  • 108th century BC
  • 107th century BC
  • 106th century BC
  • 105th century BC
  • 104th century BC
  • 103rd century BC
  • 102nd century BC
  • 101st century BC
Violet: Extent of the Alpine ice sheet in the Wurm glaciation. Blue: Extent in earlier ice ages. Map of Alpine Glaciations.png
Violet: Extent of the Alpine ice sheet in the Würm glaciation. Blue: Extent in earlier ice ages.

The Late Pleistocene is an unofficial age in the international geologic timescale in chronostratigraphy, also known as the Upper Pleistocene from a stratigraphic perspective. It is intended to be the fourth division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. It is currently defined as the time between c. 129,000 and c. 11,700 years ago. The late Pleistocene equates to the proposed Tarantian Age of the geologic time scale, preceded by the officially ratified Chibanian (commonly known as the Middle Pleistocene). [1] The beginning of the Late Pleistocene is the transition between the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period and the beginning of the Last Interglacial around 130,000 years ago (corresponding with the beginning of Marine Isotope Stage 5). [5] The Late Pleistocene ends with the termination of the Younger Dryas, some 11,700 years ago when the Holocene Epoch began. [2]

Contents

The term Upper Pleistocene is currently in use as a provisional or "quasi-formal" designation by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Although the three oldest ages of the Pleistocene (the Gelasian, the Calabrian and the Chibanian) have been officially defined, the late Pleistocene has yet to be formally defined. [6]

Following the brief Last Interglacial warm period (~130–115,000 years ago), where temperatures were comparable to or warmer than the Holocene, the Late Pleistocene was dominated by the cool Last Glacial Period, with temperatures gradually lowering throughout the period, reaching their lowest during the Last Glacial Maximum around 26-20,000 years ago.

Most of the world's large (megafaunal) animals became extinct during the Late Pleistocene as part of the Late Pleistocene extinctions, a trend that continued into the Holocene. In palaeoanthropology, the late Pleistocene contains the Upper Palaeolithic stage of human development, including the early human migrations of modern humans outside of Africa, and the extinction of all archaic human species.

Last Ice Age

The proposed beginning of the late Pleistocene is the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period (PGP) 126 ka when the Riß glaciation (Alpine) was being succeeded by the Eemian (Riß-Würm) interglacial period. [7] The Riß-Würm ended 115 ka with the onset of the Last Glacial Period (LGP) which is known in Europe as the Würm (Alpine) or Devensian (Great Britain) or Weichselian glaciation (northern Europe); these are broadly equated with the Wisconsin glaciation (North America), though technically that began much later. [7]

The Last Glacial Maximum was reached during the later millennia of the Würm/Weichselian, estimated between 26 ka and 19 ka when deglaciation began in the Northern Hemisphere. The Würm/Weichselian endured until 16 ka with Northern Europe, including most of Great Britain, covered by an ice sheet. The glaciers reached the Great Lakes in North America. [2] Sea levels fell and two land bridges were temporarily in existence that had significance for human migration: Doggerland, which connected Great Britain to mainland Europe; and the Bering land bridge which joined Alaska to Siberia. [8] [9]

The last Ice Age was followed by the Late Glacial Interstadial, a period of global warming to 12.9 ka, and the Younger Dryas, a return to glacial conditions until 11.7 ka. Paleoclimatology holds that there was a sequence of stadials and interstadials from about 16 ka until the end of the Pleistocene. These were the Oldest Dryas (stadial), the Bølling oscillation (interstadial), the Older Dryas (stadial), the Allerød oscillation (interstadial) and finally the Younger Dryas. [10]

The end of the Younger Dryas marks the boundary between the Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs. Hominids in all parts of the world were still culturally and technologically in the Palaeolithic (Old Stone) Age. Tools and weapons were basic stone or wooden implements. Nomadic tribes followed moving herds. Non-nomadics acquired their food by gathering and hunting. [11]

Africa

Its present physical geography and climate have changed over time caused by the movement of tectonic plates and volcanoes but glacial cycles and sea level variation have a more significant effect on the vertebrate communities during the Late Pleistocene. [12]

The Late Pleistocene was the time when most animals evolved to resemble modern-day animals and they managed to live through the Late mid-Pleistocene since there were no extinction events of megafauna until the end of the Late Pleistocene. [12]

Some species which went extinct at the end of the Late Pleistocene in Southern Africa are the giant warthog, long-horn buffalo, Southern springbok, etc. [13] These species were common because their distribution changed in response to climatic influences on vegetation. Carnivores were more widespread due to their varying habitat requirements.

image of Nazlet Khater skeleton found in Upper Egypt showing early human culture dating back to approximately 30-40 Ka Nazlet Khater Skeleton from above.jpg
image of Nazlet Khater skeleton found in Upper Egypt showing early human culture dating back to approximately 30-40 Ka

In Egypt, the Late (or Upper) Palaeolithic began sometime after 30,000 BC. People in North Africa had relocated to the Nile Valley as the Sahara was transformed from grassland to desert. [14] The Nazlet Khater skeleton was found in 1980 and has been radiocarbon dated to between 30,360 and 35,100 years ago. [15] [16]

Most of the knowledge of the Late Pleistocene is obtained from regions like Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, some coastal regions of Maghreb, Libya and Egypt. The only issue with interpreting the data from this region is due to the lack of chronological information. [12] The resemblance of Late Pleistocene species in Northern Africa to modern animals is the same as in Southern Africa but it's extremely difficult to date when these fauna came into place because of the lack of reliable samples from the mid-Pleistocene. [17] Most of the significant fossil records are from the Maghreb because of its geology which helps to create deep caves which is conducive for preserving fossils.

Eurasia

Neanderthal hominins (Homo neanderthalensis) inhabited Eurasia until becoming extinct between 40 and 30 ka, towards the end of the Pleistocene and possibly into the early Holocene [11] [18] and were replaced with modern humans ( Homo sapiens) who emerged from East Africa about 195,000 years ago. [19] Neanderthals co-existed with the Homo sapiens until they died out.[ citation needed ]

In Eurasia, extinction happened throughout the Pleistocene but those that happened during the Later Pleistocene were of megafauna and there were no replacements for the extinct species.[ citation needed ] Some Molluscan species went extinct but not on the same scale as the mammals living during the time. [20] Some examples of species which extinct without replacements include the Straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus), Giant deer (Megaloceros giganteus), cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) and woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis). [21] Several large mammalian species including the mammoth, mastodon, and Irish elk became extinct. [22]

Upper Paleolithic people also made paintings and engravings on walls. Cave paintings have been found at Lascaux in the Dordogne which may be more than 17,000 years old. These are mainly buffalo, deer, and other animals hunted by humans. Later paintings occur in caves throughout the world, including Altamira, Spain, and in India, Australia, and the Sahara. [18] [23]

Magdalenian hunter-gatherers were widespread in western Europe about 20 -12.500 cal BP years ago until the end of the Pleistocene. [24] An example of this is the antler-working done by the human groups who lived in the Santimamine cave in the Magdalenian. [25] They invented the earliest known harpoons using reindeer horn. [26]

Climatic conditions during the Late Pleistocene in Eurasia were predominantly cold with glaciation events happening in northern Europe, northwest Siberia and the Alps and interglacials (temperate phase). The evidence of the changes in climatic conditions was from fragmentary sequences in formerly glaciated areas in northern Europe. [21]

The only domesticated animal in the Pleistocene was the dog, which evolved from the grey wolf into its many modern breeds. It is believed that the grey wolf became associated with hunter-gatherer tribes around 15 Ka. [27] The earliest remains of a true domestic dog have been dated to 14,200 years ago. [28] Domestication first happened in Eurasia but could have been anywhere from Western Europe to East Asia. [29] Domestication of other animals such as cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep did not begin until the Holocene when settled farming communities became established in the Near East. [27] The cat was probably not domesticated before c. 7500 BC at the earliest, again in the Near East. [30]

A butchered brown bear patella found in Alice and Gwendoline Cave in County Clare and dated to 10,860 to 10,641 BC indicates the first known human activity in Ireland. [31]

Far East

The topography and geography of Asia were subject to frequent changes such as the creation of land bridges when sea levels dropped which helped with the expansion and migration of human populations. [32] The first human habitation in the Japanese archipelago has been traced to prehistoric times between 40,000 BC and 30,000 BC. The earliest fossils are radiocarbon dated to c. 35,000 BC. An archeological record of Neanderthals has been found in Asia along with records of two other hominin populations, the Denisovans and Homo floresiensis . [33] [34] [35]

Japan was once linked to the Asian mainland by land bridges via Hokkaido and Sakhalin Island to the north but was unconnected at this time when the main islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku were all separate entities. [36]

North America

Human migrations happened during this time with people coming in from Eurasia. From about 28 ka, there were migrations across the Bering land bridge from Siberia to Alaska. The people became the Native Americans. It is believed that the original tribes subsequently moved down to Central and South America under pressure from later migrations. [9] [18]

In the North American land mammal age scale, the Rancholabrean spans the time from c. 240,000 years ago to c. 11,000 years ago. It is named after the Rancho La Brea fossil site in California, characterized by extinct forms of bison in association with other Pleistocene species such as the mammoth. [37] [38] [39]

Bison occidentalis skull at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. Skull of the Bison occidentalis.jpg
Bison occidentalis skull at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History.

During the Late Pleistocene about 35 genera of megafauna went extinct including species such as mastodons, saber-toothed cats and giant ground sloths. Some other species went extinct in North America but not globally. it is still[ when? ] heavily debated[ according to whom? ] what caused the extinctions.

Bison occidentalis and Bison antiquus , an extinct subspecies of the smaller present-day bison, survived the late Pleistocene period, between about 12 and 11 ka ago. Clovis people depended on these bison as their major food source. Earlier kills of camels, horses, and muskoxen found at Wally's beach were dated to 13.1–13.3 ka B.P. [40]

South America

Over 50 genera (~ 83%) of megafauna in South and North America went extinct during the Pleistocene. [41] most mega mammals (>1000kg) and large mammals (>40kg) went extinct by the end of the Late Pleistocene. [42] During this period there was a major cooling event called the Younger Dryas and the Clovis culture of capturing game became more prominent. [43] Diverse factors such as climate change may have triggered this extinction but it's still in debate what the major factors were. [44]

The Late Pleistocene saw a change in the use of coastal resources and advancements in marine technology. The reasons for these changes have not been confirmed; various triggering mechanisms have been theorized such as climate change, the arrival of new people, or the struggle for resources. [45]

The South American land mammal age, the Lujanian, corresponds with the late Pleistocene. The Lujanian is a geologic period from 0.8 - 0.11Ma specifically for prehistoric South American fauna. [46]

Oceania

There is evidence of human habitation in mainland Australia, Indonesia, New Guinea and Tasmania from c. 45,000 BC. The finds include rock engravings, stone tools and evidence of cave habitation. [47]

In Australia, there are sites which show evidence of pollen records from the Late Pleistocene and they are mostly found in more temperate regions of the continent. [48] Some megafauna decreased in size over time, while others remained the same; however, the fossil record is limited in the exact chronologies of the extinctions. [49]

In general, various reasons have been stated to have caused the extinctions during the Late Pleistocene but the topic is still being debated. [50]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aurochs</span> Extinct species of large cattle

The aurochs is an extinct species of bovine, considered to be the wild ancestor of modern domestic cattle. With a shoulder height of up to 180 cm (71 in) in bulls and 155 cm (61 in) in cows, it was one of the largest herbivores in the Holocene; it had massive elongated and broad horns that reached 80 cm (31 in) in length.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cenozoic</span> Third era of the Phanerozoic Eon

The Cenozoic is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66 million years of Earth's history. It is characterized by the dominance of mammals, birds, conifers, and angiosperms. It is the latest of three geological eras of the Phanerozoic Eon, preceded by the Mesozoic and Paleozoic. The Cenozoic started with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, when many species, including the non-avian dinosaurs, became extinct in an event attributed by most experts to the impact of a large asteroid or other celestial body, the Chicxulub impactor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Holocene</span> Current geological epoch, covering the last 11,700 years

The Holocene is the current geological epoch, beginning approximately 11,700 years ago. It follows the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene together form the Quaternary period. The Holocene is an interglacial period within the ongoing glacial cycles of the Quaternary, and is equivalent to Marine Isotope Stage 1.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pleistocene</span> First epoch of the Quaternary Period

The Pleistocene is the geological epoch that lasted from c. 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was finally confirmed in 2009 by the International Union of Geological Sciences, the cutoff of the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene was regarded as being 1.806 million years Before Present (BP). Publications from earlier years may use either definition of the period. The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period and also with the end of the Paleolithic age used in archaeology. The name is a combination of Ancient Greek πλεῖστος (pleîstos) 'most' and καινός 'new'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quaternary</span> Third and current period of the Cenozoic Era, from 2.58 million years ago to the present

The Quaternary is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), as well as the current and most recent of the twelve periods of the Phanerozoic eon. It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.58 million years ago to the present. The Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene ; a proposed third epoch, the Anthropocene, was rejected in 2024 by IUGS, the governing body of the ICS.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Megafauna</span> Large animals

In zoology, megafauna are large animals. The precise definition of the term varies widely, though a common threshold is approximately 45 kilograms (99 lb), with other thresholds as low as 10 kilograms (22 lb) or as high as 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). Large body size is generally associated with other traits, such as having a slow rate of reproduction and, in large herbivores, reduced or negligible adult mortality from being killed by predators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Last Glacial Period</span> Period of major glaciations of the Northern Hemisphere (115,000–12,000 years ago)

The Last Glacial Period (LGP), also known as the Last glacial cycle, occurred from the end of the Last Interglacial to the beginning of the Holocene, c. 115,000 – c. 11,700 years ago, and thus corresponds to most of the timespan of the Late Pleistocene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Last Interglacial</span> Interglacial period which began 130,000 years ago

The Last Interglacial, also known as the Eemian, was the interglacial period which began about 130,000 years ago at the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period and ended about 115,000 years ago at the beginning of the Last Glacial Period. It corresponds to Marine Isotope Stage 5e. It was the second-to-latest interglacial period of the current Ice Age, the most recent being the Holocene which extends to the present day. During the Last Interglacial, the proportion of CO2 in the atmosphere was about 280 parts per million. The Last Interglacial was one of the warmest periods of the last 800,000 years, with temperatures comparable to and at times warmer than the contemporary Holocene interglacial, with the maximum sea level being up to 6 to 9 metres higher than at present, with global ice volume likely also being smaller than the Holocene interglacial.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Steppe bison</span> Extinct species of mammal

The steppe bison or steppe wisent is an extinct species of bison. It was widely distributed across the mammoth steppe, ranging from Western Europe to eastern Beringia in North America during the Late Pleistocene. It is ancestral to all North American bison, including ultimately modern American bison. Three chronological subspecies, Bison priscus priscus, Bison priscus mediator, and Bison priscus gigas, have been suggested.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of glaciation</span> Chronology of the major ice ages of the Earth

There have been five or six major ice ages in the history of Earth over the past 3 billion years. The Late Cenozoic Ice Age began 34 million years ago, its latest phase being the Quaternary glaciation, in progress since 2.58 million years ago.

A glacial period is an interval of time within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the other hand, are periods of warmer climate between glacial periods. The Last Glacial Period ended about 15,000 years ago. The Holocene is the current interglacial. A time with no glaciers on Earth is considered a greenhouse climate state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australian megafauna</span> Large animals in Australia, past and present era

The term Australian megafauna refers to the megafauna in Australia during the Pleistocene Epoch. Most of these species became extinct during the latter half of the Pleistocene, and the roles of human and climatic factors in their extinction are contested.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mammoth steppe</span> Prehistoric biome

The mammoth steppe, also known as steppe-tundra, was once the Earth's most extensive biome. During glacial periods in the later Pleistocene it stretched east-to-west, from the Iberian Peninsula in the west of Europe, across Eurasia to North America, through Beringia and northwest Canada; from north-to-south, the steppe reached from the Arctic southward to southern Europe, Central Asia and northern China. The mammoth steppe was cold and dry, and relatively featureless, though climate, topography, and geography varied considerably throughout. Certain areas of the biome—such as coastal areas—had wetter and milder climates than others. Some areas featured rivers which, through erosion, naturally created gorges, gulleys, or small glens. The continual glacial recession and advancement over millennia contributed more to the formation of larger valleys and different geographical features. Overall, however, the steppe is known to be flat and expansive grassland. The vegetation was dominated by palatable, high-productivity grasses, herbs and willow shrubs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chibanian</span> Stage of the Pleistocene Epoch

The Chibanian, more widely known as Middle Pleistocene, is an age in the international geologic timescale or a stage in chronostratigraphy, being a division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. The Chibanian name was officially ratified in January 2020. It is currently estimated to span the time between 0.770 Ma and 0.129 Ma, also expressed as 770–126 ka. It includes the transition in palaeoanthropology from the Lower to the Middle Paleolithic over 300 ka.

The Older Dryas was a stadial (cold) period between the Bølling and Allerød interstadials, about 14,000 years Before Present, towards the end of the Pleistocene. Its date range is not well defined, with estimates varying by 400 years, but its duration is agreed to have been around two centuries.

<i>Doedicurus</i> An extinct genus of mammals belonging to the armadillo order, Cingulata

Doedicurus is an extinct genus of glyptodont from South America containing one species, D. clavicaudatus. Glyptodonts are a member of the family Chlamyphoridae, which also includes some modern armadillo species, and they are classified in the superorder Xenarthra alongside sloths and anteaters. Being a glyptodont, it was a rotund animal with heavy armor and a carapace. Averaging at an approximate 1,400 kg (3,100 lb), it was one of the largest glyptodonts to have ever lived. Though glyptodonts were quadrupeds, large ones like Doedicurus may have been able to stand on two legs like other xenarthrans. It notably sported a spiked tail club, which may have weighed 40 or 65 kg in life, and it may have swung this in defense against predators or in fights with other Doedicurus at speeds of perhaps 11 m/s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Straight-tusked elephant</span> Extinct species of elephant native to Europe and West Asia

The straight-tusked elephant is an extinct species of elephant that inhabited Europe and Western Asia during the Middle and Late Pleistocene. One of the largest known elephant species, mature fully grown bulls on average had a shoulder height of 4 metres (13 ft) and a weight of 13 tonnes (29,000 lb). Straight-tusked elephants likely lived very similarly to modern elephants, with herds of adult females and juveniles and solitary adult males. The species was primarily associated with temperate and Mediterranean woodland and forest habitats, flourishing during interglacial periods, when its range would extend across Europe as far north as Great Britain and eastwards into Russia, while persisting in southern Europe during glacial periods. Skeletons found in association with stone tools and wooden spears suggest they were scavenged and hunted by early humans, including Homo heidelbergensis and their Neanderthal successors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Late Pleistocene extinctions</span> Extinctions of large mammals in the Late Pleistocene

The Late Pleistocene to the beginning of the Holocene saw the extinction of the majority of the world's megafauna, which resulted in a collapse in faunal density and diversity across the globe. The extinctions during the Late Pleistocene are differentiated from previous extinctions by its extreme size bias towards large animals, and widespread absence of ecological succession to replace these extinct megafaunal species, and the regime shift of previously established faunal relationships and habitats as a consequence. The timing and severity of the extinctions varied by region and are thought to have been driven by varying combinations of human and climatic factors. Human impact on megafauna populations is thought to have been driven by hunting ("overkill"), as well as possibly environmental alteration. The relative importance of human vs climatic factors in the extinctions has been the subject of long-running controversy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weichselian glaciation</span> Last glacial period and its associated glaciation in northern parts of Europe

The Weichselian glaciation is the regional name for the Last Glacial Period in the northern parts of Europe. In the Alpine region it corresponds to the Würm glaciation. It was characterized by a large ice sheet that spread out from the Scandinavian Mountains and extended as far as the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein, northern Poland and Northwest Russia. This glaciation is also known as the Weichselian ice age, Vistulian glaciation, Weichsel or, less commonly, the Weichsel glaciation, Weichselian cold period (Weichsel-Kaltzeit), Weichselian glacial (Weichsel-Glazial), Weichselian Stage or, rarely, the Weichselian complex (Weichsel-Komplex).

<i>Bubalus murrensis</i> Extinct species of mammal

Bubalus murrensis, also known as European water buffalo, is an extinct water buffalo species native to Europe during the Pleistocene epoch, possibly persisting into the Holocene.

References

  1. 1 2 Cohen, K. M.; Finney, S. C.; Gibbard, P. L.; Fan, J.-X. (January 2020). "International Chronostratigraphic Chart" (PDF). International Commission on Stratigraphy. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  2. 1 2 3 Mike Walker; et al. (December 2018). "Formal ratification of the subdivision of the Holocene Series/Epoch (Quaternary System/Period)" (PDF). Episodes. 41 (4). Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS): 213–223. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2018/018016 . Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  3. ↑ Walker, Mike; Head, Martin J.; Berkelhammer, Max; Björck, Svante; Cheng, Hai; Cwynar, Les; Fisher, David; Gkinis, Vasilios; Long, Anthony; Lowe, John; Newnham, Rewi; Rasmussen, Sune Olander; Weiss, Harvey (1 December 2018). "Formal ratification of the subdivision of the Holocene Series/ Epoch (Quaternary System/Period): two new Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs) and three new stages/subseries" (PDF). Episodes. 41 (4): 213–223. doi: 10.18814/epiiugs/2018/018016 . Retrieved 28 August 2020.
  4. ↑ Head, Martin J. (17 May 2019). "Formal subdivision of the Quaternary System/Period: Present status and future directions". Quaternary International. 500: 32–51. Bibcode:2019QuInt.500...32H. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2019.05.018. S2CID   182783922.
  5. ↑ D. Dahl-Jensen & others (2013). "Eemian interglacial reconstructed from a Greenland folded ice core" (PDF). Nature. 493 (7433): 489–494. Bibcode:2013Natur.493..489N. doi:10.1038/nature11789. PMID   23344358. S2CID   4420908.
  6. ↑ P. L. Gibbard (2015). "The Quaternary System/Period and its major subdivisions". Russian Geology and Geophysics. 56 (4): 686–688. Bibcode:2015RuGG...56..686G. doi:10.1016/j.rgg.2015.03.015.
  7. 1 2 D. Dahl-Jensen & others (2013). "Eemian interglacial reconstructed from a Greenland folded ice core" (PDF). Nature. 493 (7433): 489–94. Bibcode:2013Natur.493..489N. doi:10.1038/nature11789. PMID   23344358. S2CID   4420908.
  8. ↑ Lane, Megan (15 February 2011). "The moment Great Britain became an island". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  9. 1 2 Winter, Barbara. "Bering Land Bridge". SFU Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Archived from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
  10. ↑ Carlson, A. E. (2013). "The Younger Dryas Climate Event" (PDF). Encyclopaedia of Quaternary Science. Vol. 3. Elsevier. pp. 126–134.
  11. 1 2 Bronowski 1973, pp. 59–60.
  12. 1 2 3 Steele, T.E. (2013), "Vertebrate Records | Late Pleistocene of Africa", Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, Elsevier, pp. 664–672, doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-53643-3.00247-8, ISBN   978-0-444-53642-6 , retrieved 17 March 2024
  13. ↑ Backwell, Lucinda; Steininger, Christine; Neveling, Johann; Abdala, Fernando; Pereira, Lucy; Mayer, Elver; Rossouw, Lloyd; de la Peña, Paloma; Brink, James (November 2018). "Holocene large mammal mass death assemblage from South Africa". Quaternary International. 495: 49–63. Bibcode:2018QuInt.495...49B. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2017.11.055. hdl: 11336/57611 .
  14. ↑ "Ancient Egyptian Culture: Palaeolithic Egypt". Emuseum. Minnesota State University. 2002. Archived from the original on 1 June 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  15. ↑ Willoughby, Pamela R. (2007). The Evolution of Modern Humans in Africa: A Comprehensive Guide. Rowman Altamira. pp. 181–182. ISBN   978-0759101197.
  16. ↑ Bouchneba, L.; Crevecoeur, I. (2009). "The inner ear of Nazlet Khater 2 (Upper Palaeolithic, Egypt)". Journal of Human Evolution. 56 (3): 257–262. Bibcode:2009JHumE..56..257B. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.12.003. PMID   19144388.
  17. ↑ Geraads, Denis (2002). "Plio-Pleistocene mammalian biostratigraphy of Atlantic Morocco / Biostratigraphie des mammifères Plio-Pléistocènes du Maroc atlantique". Quaternaire (in French). 13 (1): 43–53. doi:10.3406/quate.2002.1702. ISSN   1142-2904.
  18. 1 2 3 Teeple 2002, pp. 12–13.
  19. ↑ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane; DeGusta, David; Gilbert, Henry; Richards, Gary D.; Suwa, Gen; Clark Howell, F. (June 2003). "Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia". Nature. 423 (6941): 742–747. Bibcode:2003Natur.423..742W. doi:10.1038/nature01669. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   12802332.
  20. ↑ Howell, F.Clark (July 1978). "British Quaternary Studies. Recent Advances Edited by F. W. Shotton. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 298 pp., $23.00". Quaternary Research. 10 (1): 138. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(78)90021-2. ISSN   0033-5894.
  21. 1 2 Stuart, Anthony J. (November 1991). "Mammalian Extinctions in the Late Pleistocene of Northern Eurasia and North America". Biological Reviews. 66 (4): 453–562. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1991.tb01149.x. ISSN   1464-7931. PMID   1801948.
  22. ↑ Sutcliffe, Antony J. (1986). On the track of ice age mammals (Reprinted with amendments ed.). London: British Museum (Natural History). ISBN   978-0-565-00869-7.
  23. ↑ Martin-Sanchez, Pedro M.; Miller, Ana Z.; Saiz-Jimenez, Cesareo (16 October 2015), Summers Engel, Annette (ed.), "13. Lascaux Cave: An Example of Fragile Ecological Balance in Subterranean Environments", Microbial Life of Cave Systems, de Gruyter, pp. 279–302, doi:10.1515/9783110339888-015, ISBN   978-3-11-033499-9 , retrieved 12 February 2024
  24. ↑ Bicho, Nuno; Haws, Jonathan (12 September 2012). "The Magdalenian in central and southern Portugal: Human ecology at the end of the Pleistocene". Quaternary International. The Magdalenian Settlement of Europe. 272–273: 6–16. Bibcode:2012QuInt.272....6B. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.02.055. ISSN   1040-6182.
  25. ↑ Erostarbe-Tome, Asier (December 2023). "Antler working by the last European Pleistocene hunter-gatherers of Santimamiñe cave (Northern Iberian Peninsula): technological implications of osseous equipment during the Magdalenian". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 15 (12): 200. Bibcode:2023ArAnS..15..200E. doi: 10.1007/s12520-023-01897-z . ISSN   1866-9557.
  26. ↑ "History of the Magdalenian". The Magdalenian. Les Eyzies. 2019. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  27. 1 2 Evan K. Irving-Pease; et al. (2018). "Palaeogenomics of Animal Domestication". In Lindqvist, C.; Rajora, O. (eds.). Palaeogenomics. Population Genomics. Springer, Cham. pp. 225–272. doi:10.1007/13836_2018_55. ISBN   978-3-030-04752-8.
  28. ↑ Olaf Thalmann; Angela R. Perri (2018). "Palaeogenomic Inferences of Dog Domestication". In Lindqvist, C.; Rajora, O. (eds.). Palaeogenomics. Population Genomics. Springer, Cham. pp. 273–306. doi:10.1007/13836_2018_27. ISBN   978-3-030-04752-8.
  29. ↑ David E. Machugh; et al. (2016). "Taming the Past: Ancient DNA and the Study of Animal Domestication". Annual Review of Animal Biosciences. 5: 329–351. doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-022516-022747. PMID   27813680.
  30. ↑ C. A. Driscoll; et al. (2007). "The Near Eastern Origin of Cat Domestication". Science . 317 (5837): 519–523. Bibcode:2007Sci...317..519D. doi:10.1126/science.1139518. ISSN   0036-8075. PMC   5612713 . PMID   17600185.
  31. ↑ Dowd, Marion (2016). "A Remarkable Cave Discovery". Archaeology Ireland. 30 (2): 21–25. JSTOR   43816774.
  32. ↑ Wooller, Matthew J.; Saulnier-Talbot, Émilie; Potter, Ben A.; Belmecheri, Soumaya; Bigelow, Nancy; Choy, Kyungcheol; Cwynar, Les C.; Davies, Kimberley; Graham, Russell W.; Kurek, Joshua; Langdon, Peter; Medeiros, Andrew; Rawcliffe, Ruth; Wang, Yue; Williams, John W. (June 2018). "A new terrestrial palaeoenvironmental record from the Bering Land Bridge and context for human dispersal". Royal Society Open Science. 5 (6): 180145. Bibcode:2018RSOS....580145W. doi:10.1098/rsos.180145. ISSN   2054-5703. PMC   6030284 . PMID   30110451.
  33. ↑ Reich, David; Green, Richard E.; Kircher, Martin; Krause, Johannes; Patterson, Nick; Durand, Eric Y.; Viola, Bence; Briggs, Adrian W.; Stenzel, Udo; Johnson, Philip L. F.; Maricic, Tomislav; Good, Jeffrey M.; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Alkan, Can; Fu, Qiaomei (December 2010). "Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia". Nature. 468 (7327): 1053–1060. Bibcode:2010Natur.468.1053R. doi:10.1038/nature09710. ISSN   0028-0836. PMC   4306417 . PMID   21179161.
  34. ↑ Brown, P.; Sutikna, T.; Morwood, M. J.; Soejono, R. P.; Jatmiko; Wayhu Saptomo, E.; Awe Due, Rokus (October 2004). "A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia". Nature. 431 (7012): 1055–1061. Bibcode:2004Natur.431.1055B. doi:10.1038/nature02999. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   15514638.
  35. ↑ Sutikna, Thomas; Tocheri, Matthew W.; Morwood, Michael J.; Saptomo, E. Wahyu; Jatmiko; Awe, Rokus Due; Wasisto, Sri; Westaway, Kira E.; Aubert, Maxime; Li, Bo; Zhao, Jian-xin; Storey, Michael; Alloway, Brent V.; Morley, Mike W.; Meijer, Hanneke J. M. (21 April 2016). "Revised stratigraphy and chronology for Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua in Indonesia". Nature. 532 (7599): 366–369. Bibcode:2016Natur.532..366S. doi:10.1038/nature17179. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   27027286.
  36. ↑ Fujita, Masaki (2016). "Advanced maritime adaptation in the western Pacific coastal region extends back to 35,000–30,000 years before present". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 113 (40): 11184–11189. Bibcode:2016PNAS..11311184F. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1607857113 . PMC   5056111 . PMID   27638208.
  37. ↑ A. E. Sanders, R. E. Weems & L. B. Albright III (2009). Formalization of the mid-Pleistocene "Ten Mile Hill beds" in South Carolina with evidence for placement of the Irvingtonian-Rancholabrean boundary. Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin (64:369–375).
  38. ↑ D. E. Savage (1951). Late Cenozoic vertebrates of the San Francisco Bay region. University of California Publications; Bulletin of the Department of Geological Sciences (28:215–314).
  39. ↑ Bell, C. J. (2004). "The Blancan, Irvingtonian, and Rancholabrean mammal ages". In Woodburne, M. O. (ed.). Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic Mammals of North America: Biostratigraphy and Geochronology. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 232–314. ISBN   0-231-13040-6.
  40. ↑ Michael R. Waters; Thomas W. Stafford Jr.; Brian Kooyman; L. V. Hills (23 March 2015). "Late Pleistocene horse and camel hunting at the southern margin of the ice-free corridor: Reassessing the age of Wally's Beach, Canada". PNAS . 112 (14): 4263–4267. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.4263W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1420650112 . PMC   4394292 . PMID   25831543.
  41. ↑ Prado, José L.; Martinez-Maza, Cayetana; Alberdi, María T. (May 2015). "Megafauna extinction in South America: A new chronology for the Argentine Pampas". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 425: 41–49. Bibcode:2015PPP...425...41P. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.02.026.
  42. ↑ Cione, Alberto L.; Tonni, Eduardo P.; Soibelzon, Leopoldo (2009), Haynes, Gary (ed.), "Did Humans Cause the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene Mammalian Extinctions in South America in a Context of Shrinking Open Areas?", American Megafaunal Extinctions at the End of the Pleistocene, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 125–144, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8793-6_7, ISBN   978-1-4020-8792-9 , retrieved 19 April 2024
  43. ↑ Prates, Luciano; Perez, S. Ivan (12 April 2021). "Late Pleistocene South American megafaunal extinctions associated with rise of Fishtail points and human population". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 2175. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.2175P. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22506-4. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   8041891 . PMID   33846353.
  44. ↑ Broughton, Jack M.; Weitzel, Elic M. (21 December 2018). "Population reconstructions for humans and megafauna suggest mixed causes for North American Pleistocene extinctions". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 5441. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.5441B. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07897-1. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   6303330 . PMID   30575758.
  45. ↑ Dillehay, Tom D. (1999). "The late Pleistocene cultures of South America". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 7 (6): 206–216. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1999)7:6<206::AID-EVAN5>3.0.CO;2-G. ISSN   1060-1538.
  46. ↑ Flynn, John J.; Swisher, Carl C. (1995), "Cenozoic South American Land Mammal AgesCorrelation to Global Geochronologies", Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation, SEPM Society for Sedimentary Geology, doi:10.2110/pec.95.04.0317, ISBN   978-1-56576-091-2 , retrieved 18 April 2024
  47. ↑ Teeple 2002, p. 13.
  48. ↑ van der Kaars, W. A. (1 June 1991). "Palynology of eastern Indonesian marine piston-cores: a Late Quaternary vegetational and climatic record for Australasia". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 85 (3): 239–302. Bibcode:1991PPP....85..239V. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(91)90163-L. ISSN   0031-0182.
  49. ↑ Wroe, Stephen; Field, Judith H.; Archer, Michael; Grayson, Donald K.; Price, Gilbert J.; Louys, Julien; Faith, J. Tyler; Webb, Gregory E.; Davidson, Iain; Mooney, Scott D. (28 May 2013). "Climate change frames debate over the extinction of megafauna in Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (22): 8777–8781. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.8777W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1302698110 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   3670326 . PMID   23650401.
  50. ↑ Barnosky, Anthony D.; Koch, Paul L.; Feranec, Robert S.; Wing, Scott L.; Shabel, Alan B. (October 2004). "Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents". Science. 306 (5693): 70–75. Bibcode:2004Sci...306...70B. doi:10.1126/science.1101476. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   15459379.

Bibliography

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.