Middle Paleolithic

Last updated
Middle Paleolithic
Period Stone Age
Dates300,000 to 50,000  BP
Preceded by Lower Paleolithic
Followed by Upper Paleolithic

The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. The term Middle Stone Age is used as an equivalent or a synonym for the Middle Paleolithic in African archeology. [1] The Middle Paleolithic broadly spanned from 300,000 to 50,000 years ago. There are considerable dating differences between regions. The Middle Paleolithic was succeeded by the Upper Paleolithic subdivision which first began between 50,000 and 40,000 years ago. [1] Pettit and White date the Early Middle Paleolithic in Great Britain to about 325,000 to 180,000 years ago (late Marine Isotope Stage 9 to late Marine Isotope Stage 7), and the Late Middle Paleolithic as about 60,000 to 35,000 years ago. [2] The Middle Paleolithic was in the geological Chibanian (Middle Pleistocene) and Late Pleistocene ages.

Contents

According to the theory of the recent African origin of modern humans, anatomically modern humans began migrating out of Africa during the Middle Stone Age/Middle Paleolithic around 125,000 years ago and began to replace earlier pre-existent Homo species such as the Neanderthals and Homo erectus .

Origin of behavioral modernity

The earliest evidence of behavioral modernity first appears during the Middle Paleolithic; undisputed evidence of behavioral modernity, however, only becomes common during the following Upper Paleolithic period. [1]

Middle Paleolithic burials at sites such as Krapina in Croatia (dated to c. 130,000 BP) and the Qafzeh and Es Skhul caves in Israel (c. 100,000 BP) have led some anthropologists and archeologists (such as Philip Lieberman) to believe that Middle Paleolithic cultures may have possessed a developing religious ideology which included concepts such as an afterlife; other scholars suggest the bodies were buried for secular reasons. [3] [4]

According to recent[ when? ] archeological findings from Homo heidelbergensis sites in the Atapuerca Mountains, the practice of intentional burial may have begun much earlier during the late Lower Paleolithic, but this theory is widely questioned in the scientific community. Cut-marks on Neandertal bones from various sites – such as Combe Grenal and the Moula rock shelter in France – may imply that Neanderthals, like some contemporary human cultures, may have practiced excarnation for presumably religious reasons (see Neanderthal behavior § Cannibalism or ritual defleshing?).

The earliest undisputed evidence of artistic expression during the Paleolithic period comes from Middle Paleolithic/Middle Stone Age sites such as Blombos Cave in the form of bracelets, [5] beads, [6] art rock, [7] ochre used as body paint and perhaps in ritual, [1] [7] though earlier examples of artistic expression such as the Venus of Tan-Tan and the patterns found on elephant bones from Bilzingsleben in Thuringia may have been produced by Acheulean tool-users such as Homo erectus prior to the start of the Middle Paleolithic period. [8] Activities such as catching large fish and hunting large game animals with specialized tools indicate increased group-wide cooperation and more elaborate social organization. [1]

In addition to developing advanced cultural traits, humans also first began to take part in long-distance trade between groups for rare commodities (such as ochre (which was often used for religious purposes such as ritual [7] [9] )) and raw materials during the Middle Paleolithic as early as 120,000 years ago. [1] [10] Inter-group trade may have appeared during the Middle Paleolithic because trade between bands would have helped ensure their survival by allowing them to exchange resources and commodities such as raw materials during times of relative scarcity (i.e., famine or drought). [10]

Social stratification

Evidence from archeology and comparative ethnography indicates that Middle Paleolithic people lived in small, egalitarian band societies similar to those of Upper Paleolithic societies and some modern hunter-gatherers such as the ǃKung and Mbuti peoples. [1] [11] Both Neanderthal and modern human societies took care of the elderly members of their societies during the Middle Paleolithic. [10] Christopher Boehm (1999) has hypothesized that egalitarianism may have arisen in Middle Paleolithic societies because of a need to distribute resources such as food and meat equally to avoid famine and ensure a stable food supply. [12]

It has usually been assumed that women gathered plants and firewood and men hunted and scavenged dead animals through the Paleolithic. [13] However, Steven L. Kuhn and Mary Stiner from the University of Arizona suggest that this sex-based division of labor did not exist prior to the Upper Paleolithic. The sexual division of labor may have evolved after 45,000 years ago to allow humans to acquire food and other resources more efficiently. [13]

Nutrition

Although gathering and hunting comprised most of the food supply during the Middle Paleolithic, people began to supplement their diet with seafood and began smoking and drying meat to preserve and store it. For instance the Middle Stone Age inhabitants of the region now occupied by the Democratic Republic of the Congo hunted large 1.8-metre (6 ft) long catfish with specialized barbed fishing points as early as 90,000 years ago, [1] [14] and Neandertals and Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens in Africa began to catch shellfish for food as revealed by shellfish cooking in Neanderthal sites in Italy about 110,000 years ago and Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens sites at Pinnacle Point, in Africa. [1] [15]

Anthropologists such as Tim D. White suggest that cannibalism was common in human societies prior to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, based on the large amount of "butchered human" bones found in Neandertal and other Middle Paleolithic sites. [16] Cannibalism in the Middle Paleolithic may have occurred because of food shortages. [17]

However it is also possible that Middle Paleolithic cannibalism occurred for religious reasons which would coincide with the development of religious practices thought to have occurred during the Upper Paleolithic. [18] [19] Nonetheless it remains possible that Middle Paleolithic societies never practiced cannibalism and that the damage to recovered human bones was either the result of excarnation or predation by carnivores such as saber-toothed cats, lions and hyenas. [19]

Technology

This is a drawing of a replica of an Acheulean hand-axe found during the Lower Paleolithic period. The tool in this drawing is made of black obsidian and is worked on both sides. Wikiartifact-page-001.jpg
This is a drawing of a replica of an Acheulean hand-axe found during the Lower Paleolithic period. The tool in this drawing is made of black obsidian and is worked on both sides.

Around 200,000 BP Middle Paleolithic Stone tool manufacturing spawned a tool-making technique known as the prepared-core technique, that was more elaborate than previous Acheulean techniques. [20] [21] Wallace and Shea split the core artifacts into two different types: formal cores and expedient cores. Formal cores are designed to extract the maximum amount from the raw material while expedient cores are based more upon functional need. [22] This method increased efficiency by permitting the creation of more controlled and consistent flakes. [21] This method allowed Middle Paleolithic humans correspondingly to create stone-tipped spears, which were the earliest composite tools, by hafting sharp, pointy stone flakes onto wooden shafts. Paleolithic groups such as the Neanderthals who possessed a Middle Paleolithic level of technology appear to have hunted large game just as well as Upper Paleolithic modern humans [23] and the Neanderthals in particular may have likewise hunted with projectile weapons. [24]

Nonetheless Neanderthal usage of projectile weapons in hunting occurred very rarely (or perhaps never) and the Neanderthals hunted large game animals mostly by ambushing them and attacking them with mêlée weapons such as thrusting spears rather than attacking them from a distance with projectile weapons. [10] [25] An ongoing controversy about the nature of Middle Paleolithic tools is whether there were a series of functionally specific and preconceived tool forms or whether there was a simple continuum of tool morphology that reflect the extent of edge maintenance, as Harold L. Dibble has suggested. [26]

The use of fire became widespread for the first time in human prehistory during the Middle Paleolithic, and humans began to cook their food c. 250,000 years ago. [27] [28] Some scientists have hypothesized that hominids began cooking food to defrost frozen meat which would help ensure their survival in cold regions. [28] Robert K. Wayne, a molecular biologist, has controversially claimed, based on a comparison of canine DNA, that dogs may have been first domesticated during the Middle Paleolithic around or even before 100,000 BCE. [29]

Sites

Cave sites

Western Europe

Middle East and Africa

Open-air sites

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human evolution</span> Evolutionary process leading to anatomically modern humans

Human evolution is the evolutionary process within the history of primates that led to the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species of the hominid family that includes all the great apes. This process involved the gradual development of traits such as human bipedalism, dexterity, and complex language, as well as interbreeding with other hominins, indicating that human evolution was not linear but weblike. The study of the origins of humans involves several scientific disciplines, including physical and evolutionary anthropology, paleontology, and genetics; the field is also known by the terms anthropogeny, anthropogenesis, and anthropogony.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paleolithic</span> Prehistoric period, first part of the Stone Age

The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic, also called the Old Stone Age, is a period in human prehistory that is distinguished by the original development of stone tools, and which represents almost the entire period of human prehistoric technology. It extends from the earliest known use of stone tools by hominins, c. 3.3 million years ago, to the end of the Pleistocene, c. 11,650 cal BP.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early modern human</span> Old Stone Age Homo sapiens

Early modern human (EMH), or anatomically modern human (AMH), are terms used to distinguish Homo sapiens that are anatomically consistent with the range of phenotypes seen in contemporary humans, from extinct archaic human species. This distinction is useful especially for times and regions where anatomically modern and archaic humans co-existed, for example, in Paleolithic Europe. Among the oldest known remains of Homo sapiens are those found at the Omo-Kibish I archaeological site in south-western Ethiopia, dating to about 233,000 to 196,000 years ago, the Florisbad site in South Africa, dating to about 259,000 years ago, and the Jebel Irhoud site in Morocco, dated about 315,000 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Behavioral modernity</span> Transition of human species to anthropologically modern behavior

Behavioral modernity is a suite of behavioral and cognitive traits believed to distinguish current Homo sapiens from other anatomically modern humans, hominins, and primates. Most scholars agree that modern human behavior can be characterized by abstract thinking, planning depth, symbolic behavior, music and dance, exploitation of large game, and blade technology, among others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mousterian</span> European Middle Paleolithic culture

The Mousterian is an archaeological industry of stone tools, associated primarily with the Neanderthals in Europe, and to the earliest anatomically modern humans in North Africa and West Asia. The Mousterian largely defines the latter part of the Middle Paleolithic, the middle of the West Eurasian Old Stone Age. It lasted roughly from 160,000 to 40,000 BP. If its predecessor, known as Levallois or Levallois-Mousterian, is included, the range is extended to as early as c. 300,000–200,000 BP. The main following period is the Aurignacian of Homo sapiens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</span> Research institute based in Leipzig, Germany

The Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology is a research institute based in Leipzig, Germany, that was founded in 1997. It is part of the Max Planck Society network.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Upper Paleolithic</span> Subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age

The Upper Paleolithic is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. Very broadly, it dates to between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago, according to some theories coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity in early modern humans, until the advent of the Neolithic Revolution and agriculture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lower Paleolithic</span> Earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic

The Lower Paleolithic is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. It spans the time from around 3.3 million years ago when the first evidence for stone tool production and use by hominins appears in the current archaeological record, until around 300,000 years ago, spanning the Oldowan and Acheulean lithics industries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neanderthal extinction</span> Prehistoric event

Neanderthals became extinct around 40,000 years ago. Hypotheses on the causes of the extinction include violence, transmission of diseases from modern humans which Neanderthals had no immunity to, competitive replacement, extinction by interbreeding with early modern human populations, natural catastrophes, climate change and inbreeding depression. It is likely that multiple factors caused the demise of an already low population.

The Klasies River Caves are a series of caves located east of the Klasies River Mouth on the Tsitsikamma coast in the Humansdorp district of Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The Klasies River Main (KRM) site consists of 3 main caves and 2 shelters located within a cliff on the southern coast of the Eastern Cape. The site provides evidence for developments in stone tool technology, evolution of modern human anatomy and behavior, and changes in paleoecology and climate in Southern Africa based on evidence from plant remains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paleolithic religion</span> Religions thought to have appeared during the Paleolithic time period

Paleolithic religions are a set of spiritual beliefs and practices that are theorized to have appeared during the Paleolithic time period. Paleoanthropologists Andre Leroi-Gourhan and Annette Michelson believe unmistakably religious behavior emerged by the Upper Paleolithic, before 30,000 years ago at the latest, but behavioral patterns such as burial rites that one might characterize as religious — or as ancestral to religious behavior — reach back into the Middle Paleolithic, as early as 300,000 years ago, coinciding with the first appearance of Homo neanderthalensis and possibly Homo naledi.

Paleolithic Europe, or Old Stone Age Europe, encompasses the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age in Europe from the arrival of the first archaic humans, about 1.4 million years ago until the beginning of the Mesolithic around 10,000 years ago. This period thus covers over 99% of the total human presence on the European continent. The early arrival and disappearance of Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis, the appearance, complete evolution and eventual demise of Homo neanderthalensis and the immigration and successful settlement of Homo sapiens all have taken place during the European Paleolithic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</span>

The oldest undisputed examples of figurative art are known from Europe and from Sulawesi, Indonesia, and are dated as far back as around 50,000 years ago . Together with religion and other cultural universals of contemporary human societies, the emergence of figurative art is a necessary attribute of full behavioral modernity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neanderthal</span> Extinct Eurasian species or subspecies of archaic humans

Neanderthals are an extinct group of archaic humans who lived in Eurasia until about 40,000 years ago. The type specimen, Neanderthal 1, was found in 1856 in the Neander Valley in present-day Germany.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Skhul and Qafzeh hominins</span> Hominin fossils

The Skhul and Qafzeh hominins or Qafzeh–Skhul early modern humans are hominin fossils discovered in Es-Skhul and Qafzeh caves in Israel. They are today classified as Homo sapiens, among the earliest of their species in Eurasia. Skhul Cave is on the slopes of Mount Carmel; Qafzeh Cave is a rockshelter near Nazareth in Lower Galilee.

Prehistoric technology is technology that predates recorded history. History is the study of the past using written records. Anything prior to the first written accounts of history is prehistoric, including earlier technologies. About 2.5 million years before writing was developed, technology began with the earliest hominids who used stone tools, which they first used to hunt food, and later to cook.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of prehistoric technology</span> Overview of and topical guide to prehistoric technology

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to prehistoric technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scladina</span> Caves and archaeological site in Belgium

Scladina, or Sclayn Cave, is an archaeological site located in Wallonia in the town of Sclayn, in the Andenne hills in Belgium, where excavations since 1978 have provided the material for an exhaustive collection of over thirteen thousand Mousterian stone artifacts and the fossilized remains of an especially ancient Neanderthal, called the Scladina child were discovered in 1993.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Goyet Caves</span> Caves and archaeological site in Belgium

The Goyet Caves are a series of connected caves located in Belgium in a limestone cliff about 15 m (50 ft) above the river Samson near the village of Mozet in the Gesves municipality of the Namur province. The site is a significant locality of regional Neanderthal and European early modern human occupation, as thousands of fossils and artifacts were discovered that are all attributed to a long and contiguous stratigraphic sequence from 120,000 years ago, the Middle Paleolithic to less than 5,000 years ago, the late Neolithic. A robust sequence of sediments was identified during extensive excavations by geologist Edouard Dupont, who undertook the first probings as early as 1867. The site was added to the Belgian National Heritage register in 1976.

The diet of known human ancestors varies dramatically over time. Strictly speaking, according to evolutionary anthropologists and archaeologists, there is not a single hominin Paleolithic diet. The Paleolithic covers roughly 2.8 million years, concurrent with the Pleistocene, and includes multiple human ancestors with their own evolutionary and technological adaptations living in a wide variety of environments. This fact with the difficulty of finding conclusive evidence often makes broad generalizations of the earlier human diets very difficult. Humans' pre-hominin primate ancestors were broadly herbivorous, relying on either foliage or fruits and nuts and the shift in dietary breadth during the Paleolithic is often considered a critical point in hominin evolution. A generalization between Paleolithic diets of the various human ancestors that many anthropologists do make is that they are all to one degree or another omnivorous and are inextricably linked with tool use and new technologies.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Miller, Barbra; Bernard Wood; Andrew Balansky; Julio Mercader; Melissa Panger (2006). Anthropology (PDF). Boston Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon. p. 768. ISBN   978-0-205-32024-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-04-09. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
  2. ↑ Pettit, Paul; White, Mark (2012). The British Palaeolithic: Human Societies at the Edge of the Pleistocene World. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. pp. 209, 293. ISBN   978-0-415-67455-3.
  3. ↑ Ben Harder (2001-12-15). "Evolving in their graves: early burials hold clues to human origins". Archived from the original on 2012-06-23.
  4. ↑ Lieberman, Philip (1991). Uniquely Human: The Evolution of Speech, Thought, and Selfless Behavior. Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-92183-2. Archived from the original on 2016-05-02. Retrieved 2016-05-16.
  5. ↑ Jonathan Amos (2004-04-15). "Cave yields 'earliest jewellery'". BBC News . Archived from the original on 2011-10-16. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
  6. ↑ Hillary Mayell. "Oldest Jewelry? "Beads" Discovered in African Cave". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 2011-08-22. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
  7. 1 2 3 Sean Henahan. "Blombos Cave art". Science news. Archived from the original on 2011-08-07. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
  8. ↑ "Human Evolution", Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007. Microsoft Corporation. Contributed by Richard B. Potts. 2009-11-01.
  9. ↑ Felipe Fernandez Armesto (2003). Ideas that changed the world. New York: Dorling Kindersley Limited. p.  400. ISBN   978-0-7566-3298-4.;
  10. 1 2 3 4 Hillary Mayell. "When Did "Modern" Behavior Emerge in Humans?". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 2013-11-02. Retrieved 2008-02-05.
  11. ↑ Boehm, Christopher (2009). Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior. Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-02844-9., p. 198
  12. ↑ Boehm, Christopher (2009). Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior. Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-02844-9., p. 192
  13. 1 2 Stefan Lovgren. "Sex-Based Roles Gave Modern Humans an Edge, Study Says". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 2018-07-15. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
  14. ↑ "Human Evolution," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 Archived 2008-04-08 at the Wayback Machine Contributed by Richard B. Potts.
  15. ↑ John Noble Wilford (2007-10-18). "Key Human Traits Tied to Shellfish Remains". New York Times. Archived from the original on 2014-05-02. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
  16. ↑ Tim D. White (2006-09-15). Once were Cannibals. University of Chicago Press. ISBN   978-0-226-74269-4 . Retrieved 2008-02-14.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  17. ↑ James Owen. "Neandertals Turned to Cannibalism, Bone Cave Suggests". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 2011-09-24. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
  18. ↑ Pathou-Mathis M (2000). "Neandertal subsistence behaviours in Europe". International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. 10 (5): 379–395. doi: 10.1002/1099-1212(200009/10)10:5<379::AID-OA558>3.0.CO;2-4 .
  19. 1 2 Karl J. Narr. "Prehistoric religion". Britannica online encyclopedia 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-04-09. Retrieved 2008-03-28.
  20. ↑ Hu, Yue; Marwick, Ben; Zhang, Jia-Fu; Rui, Xue; Hou, Ya-Mei; Yue, Jian-Ping; Chen, Wen-Rong; Huang, Wei-Wen; Li, Bo (19 November 2018). "Late Middle Pleistocene Levallois stone-tool technology in southwest China". Nature. 565 (7737): 82–85. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0710-1. PMID   30455423. S2CID   53873016.
  21. 1 2 "Human Evolution," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007. Microsoft Corporation. Contributed by Richard B. Potts. Archived 2009-11-01.
  22. ↑ Wallace, Ian; Shea, John (2006). "Mobility patterns and core technologies in the Middle Paleolithic of the Levant". Journal of Archaeological Science. 33 (9): 1293–1309. Bibcode:2006JArSc..33.1293W. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.01.005.
  23. ↑ Ann Parson. "Neandertals Hunted as Well as Humans, Study Says". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 2011-10-03. Retrieved 2008-02-01.
  24. ↑ Boëda, E.; Geneste, J.M.; Griggo, C.; Mercier, N.; Muhesen, S.; Reyss, J.L.; Taha, A.; Valladas, H. (1999). "A Levallois point embedded in the vertebra of a wild ass (Equus africanus): Hafting, projectiles and Mousterian hunting". Antiquity. 73: 394–402. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00088335. S2CID   163560577.
  25. ↑ Cameron Balbirnie (2005-02-10). "The icy truth behind Neanderthals". BBC News . Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2008-04-01.
  26. ↑ Dibble, H.L. (1995). "Middle paleolithic scraper reduction: Background, clarification, and review of the evidence to date". Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 2 (4): 299–368. doi:10.1007/bf02229003. S2CID   143516307.
  27. ↑ Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick (2007). "21 Overview of Paleolithic Archeology". Handbook of Paleoanthropology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 1963. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-33761-4_64. ISBN   978-3-540-32474-4.
  28. 1 2 Wrangham, Richard; Conklin-Brittain, NancyLou (September 2003). "Cooking as a biological trait" (PDF). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A. 136 (1): 35–46. doi:10.1016/S1095-6433(03)00020-5. PMID   14527628. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 May 2005. Retrieved 5 June 2014.
  29. ↑ Christine mellot. "stalking the ancient dog" (PDF). Science news. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-06-29. Retrieved 2008-03-01.
  30. ↑ Garaizar, Joseba Rios. "Aportes de las nuevas excavaciones en Axlor sobre el final del Paleolítico Medio".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  31. ↑ "Hypogene Speleogenesis and Karst Hydrogeology of Artesian Basins" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-08-18. Retrieved 2018-12-15.
  32. ↑ Papamarinopoulos, Stavros; et al. (February 1987). "Palaeomagnetic and Mineral Magnetic Studies of Sediments from Petralona Cave, Greece". Archaeometry. 29 (1): 50–59. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1987.tb00397.x. S2CID   59505161.
  33. ↑ "Stone Age - Africa". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2018-10-20. Retrieved 2018-11-28.
  34. ↑ William E. Banks; et al. (2006). "Eco-Cultural Niche Modeling: New Tools for Reconstructing the Geography and Ecology of Past Human Populations". Eco-Cultural Niche Modeling: New Tools for Reconstructing the Geography and Ecology of Past Human Populations: 68–83.
  35. ↑ Trinkaus, E; Biglari, F (2006). "Middle Paleolithic Human Remains from Bisitun Cave, Iran". Paléorient. 32 (2): 105–11. doi:10.3406/paleo.2006.5192
  36. ↑ Ilona Turánszky (1979). Azerbaijan: Mosques, Turrets, Palaces. Corvina Kiadó. pp. 8–9. ISBN   9789631303216.
  37. ↑ Zanolli, Clément, Fereidoun Biglari, Marjan Mashkour, Kamyar Abdi, Herve Monchot, Karyne Debue, Arnaud Mazurier, Priscilla Bayle, Mona Le Luyer, Hélène Rougier, Erik Trinkaus, Roberto Macchiarelli. (2019). A Neanderthal from the Central Western Zagros, Iran. Structural reassessment of the Wezmeh 1 maxillary premolar. Journal of Human Evolution, Vol: 135.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.