Black Arrow originated from studies by the Royal Aircraft Establishment for carrier rockets based on the earlier Black Knight rocket;[4] the project was authorised by the British government in late 1964. Development of Black Arrow was largely performed by the prime contractor,the British aerospace company Saunders-Roe,and later undertaken by Westland Aircraft as the result of a merger. Both the first and second stage engines were produced by Bristol Siddeley at their factory in Ansty,Warwickshire. Assembly of the first and second stages was carried out at East Cowes on the Isle of Wight. Once manufactured,each Black Arrow vehicle was transported by ship to Australia prior to being launched from the RAAF Woomera Range Complex.
Black Arrow was a three-stage rocket,fuelled by RP-1paraffin (kerosene) and high test peroxide,a concentrated form of hydrogen peroxide (85% hydrogen peroxide + 15% water).[5] While the first two stages featured thrust vectoring to provide attitude control,[4] the third stage did not have an attitude control system,and instead relied upon spin-stabilisation along with a reaction control system. The first stage was intentionally designed to be compatible with Blue Streak,as well as to be interchangeable with Coralie.[2] Furthermore,several derivatives of Black Arrow were proposed to provide for increased payload capacity.
A total of four launches of Black Arrow were performed between 1969 and 1971,the first two being demonstration flights to prove the launcher's capabilities. While the first and third flights were failures,the second and fourth flights were successful. Black Arrow's final flight placed the Prospero satellite into low Earth orbit,making it the first and only successful orbital launch to be conducted by the United Kingdom.[2] British officials decided to discontinue the programme in favour of using American Scout rockets instead,the Ministry of Defence having calculated this option to be cheaper than continuing with Black Arrow.[6] The final Black Arrow to be completed,which never flew,has been preserved intact at the Science Museum,London,along with the flight spare for the Prospero satellite.
Development
Black Arrow originated from a Royal Aircraft Establishment proposal for a rocket capable of placing a 317-pound (144kg) payload into low Earth orbit,[altitude and inclination needed] in order to test systems designed for larger spacecraft.[7] In the autumn of 1964,the programme was authorised by ConservativeAviation MinisterJulian Amery.[8] Then,following a general election in October,the incoming Labour government put the project on hold to reduce expenditure.[9] Following another election,the British government approved the continuation of the programme with several modifications,including the reduction of the test programme from five to three launches. The maiden launch was set for 1968.[10][11]
The majority of the technology and systems used on Black Arrow had already been developed or flight-proven on the Black Knight rocket,or the Blue Steel missile.[4] Black Arrow was designed to reuse as much technology from the earlier programmes as possible in order to reduce costs,and simplify the development process.[17] Many senior staff of the Black Knight programme transferred directly to Black Arrow,including the Chief Missile Scientist Roy Dommett,the Chief Design Engineer Ray Wheeler,and the Deputy Chief Engineer John Underwood.[18] Despite this effort,the programme encountered more difficulties and greater costs than had originally been anticipated.[19] This outcome was in no small part due to the austere budget that had been provided from the government of £3 million per year.[11][20]
The name Black Arrow came from the Ministry of Supply policy of assigning designations consisting of a colour and a noun,unofficially known as Rainbow Codes,to research programmes conducted by the Armed Forces.[3][21] Despite this naming convention,the programme was officially a civilian venture.[22] It was unofficially nicknamed the "Lipstick Rocket",as the fairing,which was painted bright red for visibility,made the rocket resemble a tube of lipstick.[23]
Vehicle
Cutaway diagram,showing the positions of fuel and oxidiser tanks,engines,and the third stage inside the fairing.
Black Arrow was a relatively compact launch vehicle,being particularly slender as well as possibly being the shortest rocket to ever place a satellite into orbit.[24] The first and second stages of the Black Arrow were fuelled by RP-1 paraffin (kerosene),burnt using high test peroxide as an oxidiser.[5][25] Due to the optimum mixture ratio being about 7,a larger oxidiser tank was required compared to many contemporary launch systems.[26] The oxidiser tanks were located below the fuel tanks,following the practice of putting the more dense propellant at the top in order move the centre of gravity higher and make the rocket more stable,when in flight,[27] and thus easier to control.[4] This arrangement had been pioneered by Germany and the United States,whereas the Soviet Union had placed oxidiser tanks above fuel tanks,making it easier for the lower tank to be filled first.[28]
Thrust vectoring was used to provide attitude control on the first two stages.[4] The eight first stage combustion chambers were arranged in pairs which could gimbal either way along one axis.[4] Two of the pairs were arranged perpendicular to the other two,and when all four pairs were used together,they provided roll,pitch and yaw control.[4] The second stage had two combustion chambers,which could gimbal along two axes,providing the same level of control. During a coast phase after second stage cut-off,the rocket was controlled by a reaction control system.[4] The third stage did not have an attitude control system,and was instead spin-stabilised.[2] The guidance system used was derived from that of the cancelled BAC TSR-2bomber.[24]
The first stage was powered by a single Gamma 8 engine,which burned for 127 seconds.[2] The Gamma 8 was an eight-chamber engine,derived from the Gamma 301 engine used on the Black Knight.[29] It was 6.9 metres (23ft) long,and had a diameter of 2 metres (6ft 7in),the same diameter as the French Coralie.[2] Coralie was used as the second stage of the Europa rocket,and the decision to give Black Arrow the same diameter as Coralie was taken in order to make it compatible with Blue Streak,which was used as the first stage of Europa.[30] This would have allowed Black Arrow's payload capacity to have been increased,and would also have allowed Britain to use the first stage of Black Arrow as a backup to the Coralie.[31] For this reason,all dimensions in the original specification were given in imperial units except the first stage diameter,which was given in metric units.[30]
The first and second stages were connected by an interstage structure containing four Siskin IBseparation and ullage motors,which separated and ignited seven seconds after the first stage had cut off.[4][32] The interstage separated from the second stage six seconds later. The second stage,which was 2.9 metres (9ft 6in) long and measured 1.37 metres (4ft 6in) in diameter,was powered by a two-chamber Gamma 2 engine[33] which ignited shortly after the separation motors,and continued to burn for 123 seconds.[2] Three minutes after launch,during the second stage burn,the payload fairing separated.[2]
The first two stages and open payload fairing of R4 on display at the Science Museum in London
About 257 seconds into the flight,the second stage cut off,and the rocket entered a coast phase to apogee.[2] Immediately after cut-off,the second stage attitude control system was pressurised. During the coast the correct orientation for third stage separation was maintained by means of the attitude control system.[2] Towards the end of the coast period,the third stage was spun up to a rate of 3hertz (180rpm) by means of six Imp rockets.[2] Five seconds later,the third stage separated,[4] and following ten more seconds of coasting,it ignited. The third stage was a Waxwing solid rocket motor,which burned for 55 seconds.[2]
Just over a minute after the third stage had burned out,the payload was released,and gas generators were used to push the spacecraft and spent upper stage apart.[2] The delay between burnout and separation was intended to reduce the risk of recontact between the upper stage and payload due to residual thrust. Despite this,following spacecraft separation on the R3 launch,the upper stage collided with the Prospero satellite,[2] damaging one of the spacecraft's communications antennae.[34] Despite this,the spacecraft was still able to successfully complete its mission.[34] On the R3 launch,the ascent took 710 seconds (11.8min) from liftoff to spacecraft separation.[2]
Although none were ever built,several derivatives of Black Arrow were also proposed,typically focused upon increasing its payload capacity.[35] In its standard configuration,Black Arrow was not capable of launching some contemporary satellites up to a sufficient altitude to achieve geostationary orbit.[36] Accordingly,one proposal was to add eight Raven solid rocket motors from the Skylark programme to the first stage as booster rockets.[4] Another suggestion was to mount the entire rocket atop a Blue Streak missile,[37][38] while a third proposal involved replacing the Gamma engines with the more powerful Larch.[4]
Launches
The colour scheme used on all flights except R0,with stripes on the first stage for determining roll angle,and a coloured fairing to increase visibility.
Four Black Arrows were launched between 1969 and 1971.[39] The first two launches were demonstration flights,with battleship third stages and a boilerplate payload. On the maiden flight,an electrical fault caused a pair of first stage combustion chambers to pivot back and forth.[40] Before it cleared the launch pad,the rocket was rolling erratically,and about a minute later it began to disintegrate. After the first stage engine failed,and the rocket began to fall back to earth,it was destroyed by range safety.[41][42] This initial failure was a considerable blow to the programme,particularly as there were insufficient financial reserves to accommodate a second unsuccessful launch. The second Black Arrow vehicle was returned to Britain for inspection and fixes ahead of the next launch.[43]
The second launch,performed on 4 March 1970,was entirely successful.[43] On 2 September 1970,the third launch of the Black Arrow took place;it was the first all-up launch as well as Britain's first attempt to launch a satellite. This launch failed due to a leak in the second stage oxidiser pressurisation system,which caused it to cut out early. The third stage fired,but the rocket did not reach orbit,and re-entered over the Gulf of Carpentaria.[44] An extensive programme review was conducted in the aftermath of the third launch,which determined the Black Arrow's design to have no fundamental flaws and that only minor modifications were required.[45]
The fourth launch,performed on 28 October 1971,successfully orbited the Prospero (before the R2 mission,it was named Puck) satellite,making the United Kingdom the sixth nation to place a satellite into orbit by means of an indigenously developed carrier rocket. The satellite,also known as X-3,was named Prospero after the character Prospero in Shakespeare'sThe Tempest. The name was chosen as a reference to events in the play,in which Prospero,a sorcerer,gives up his powers.[46] Prior to the cancellation of the Black Arrow programme,the satellite was to be named after Puck from A Midsummer Night's Dream.[5]
All four launches were conducted from Launch Area 5B at the RAAF Woomera Range Complex in Australia,which had previously been used as a test site for the Black Knight rocket.[47] During the development programme,launch sites in Barbados,Uist and Norfolk were also considered. The launch sites at Uist and Norfolk were rejected because the former was too remote,while there was a risk that a rocket launched from the latter might drop spent stages on an oil rig in the North Sea.[24][48]
Black Arrow R4 on display in the Science Museum,with the stages and fairing separated,and the flight spare of the Prospero satellite
The Minister of State for Trade and Industry,Frederick Corfield,announced the cancellation of the Black Arrow project in the House of Commons on 29 July 1971.[50][45] Britain would instead focus its space activities on building satellites and rely on foreign launch vehicles instead.[51] As the R3 rocket had already been shipped to the launch site,the second stage having arrived three days earlier,permission was given for it to be launched.[2]
The programme was cancelled on economic grounds,as the Ministry of Defence decided that it would be cheaper to use the American Scout rocket,which had a similar payload capacity,for future launches.[6][52][53] Prior to the cancellation of Black Arrow,NASA had offered to launch British payloads for free;however,this offer was withdrawn following the decision to cancel Black Arrow.[2]
The final Black Arrow to be completed was R4,which did not fly,and is preserved in the Science Museum,London,along with the flight spare for the Prospero satellite.[54][55] A replica of the Black Arrow rocket stands in the Rocket Park at Woomera. In addition,the remains of the first stage of Black Arrow R3 were recovered from the Anna Creek cattle station and were displayed in the William Creek Memorial Park.[56] Due to weather and vandalism related damage,the first stage was returned to the United Kingdom in an initiative led by Skyrora to preserve the artefact.[57] It was displayed in Penicuik,Scotland,in early 2019;as of 2021,the rocket is on loan to the Farnborough Air Sciences Trust Museum through 2024.[58]
The first stage of Black Arrow R3,on display at William Creek following its return to Earth
The launch facilities at Woomera were demolished within a year of the final flight,[4] and half of the engineers who had worked on the programme were laid off.[41] The X-4 satellite,which had been manifested for launch by Black Arrow R4,was eventually launched on 9 March 1974,by an American Scout D-1 rocket flying from Space Launch Complex 5 at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.[59]
As of 2022,the United Kingdom is the only country to have successfully developed and then abandoned a satellite launch capability.[60] All other countries that have developed such a capability have retained it either through their own space programme or,in the case of France,through its involvement in the Ariane programme.[60]
Arianespace SA is a French company founded in 1980 as the world's first commercial launch service provider. It undertakes the operation and marketing of the Ariane programme. The company offers a number of different launch vehicles: the heavy-lift Ariane 5 for dual launches to geostationary transfer orbit, the Soyuz-2 as a medium-lift alternative, and the solid-fueled Vega for lighter payloads.
The de Havilland Propellers Blue Streak was a British Intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM), and later the first stage of the Europa satellite launch vehicle. Blue Streak was cancelled without entering full production.
The Ariane 4 was a European expendable launch vehicle, developed by the Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES), the French space agency, for the European Space Agency (ESA). It was manufactured by ArianeGroup and marketed by Arianespace. Since its first flight on 15 June 1988 until the final flight on 15 February 2003, it attained 113 successful launches out of 116 total launches.
The Europa rocket was an early expendable launch system of the European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO), which was the precursor to the European Space Agency (ESA). It was developed with the aim to delivering space access technology, and more specifically to facilitate the deployment of European-wide telecommunication and meteorological satellites into orbit.
The Diamant rocket was the first exclusively French expendable launch system and at the same time the first satellite launcher not built by either the United States or USSR. As such, it has been referred to as being a key predecessor for all subsequent European launcher projects.
Ariane 3 was a European expendable carrier rocket, which was used for eleven launches between 1984 and 1989. It was a member of the Ariane family of rockets. The principal manufacturer for the Ariane 3 was Aérospatiale, while the lead agency for its development was the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES).
Ariane 1 was the first rocket in the Ariane family of expendable launch systems. It was developed and operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), which had been formed in 1973, the same year that development of the launcher had commenced.
Vega is an expendable launch system in use by Arianespace jointly developed by the Italian Space Agency (ASI) and the European Space Agency (ESA). Development began in 1998 and the first launch took place from the Centre Spatial Guyanais on 13 February 2012.
Black Knight was a British research ballistic missile, originally developed to test and verify the design of a re-entry vehicle for the Blue Streak missile. It holds the distinction of being the United Kingdom's first indigenous expendable launch project.
The Prospero satellite, also known as the X-3, was launched by the United Kingdom in 1971. It was designed to undertake a series of experiments to study the effects of the space environment on communications satellites and remained operational until 1973, after which it was contacted annually for over 25 years. Although Prospero was the first British satellite to have been launched successfully by a British rocket, Black Arrow; the first British satellite placed in orbit was Ariel 1, launched in April 1962 on a US rocket.
Zenit is a family of space launch vehicles designed by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau in Dnipro, Ukraine, which was then part of the Soviet Union. Zenit was originally built in the 1980s for two purposes: as a liquid rocket booster for the Energia rocket and, equipped with a second stage, as a stand-alone middle-weight launcher with a payload greater than the 7 tonnes of the Soyuz but smaller than the 20 tonnes payload of the Proton. The last rocket family developed in the USSR, the Zenit was intended as an eventual replacement for the dated Soyuz and Proton families, and it would employ propellants which were safer and less toxic than the Proton's nitrogen tetroxide/UDMH mix. Zenit was planned to take over crewed spaceship launches from Soyuz, but these plans were abandoned after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Falcon 1 was a small-lift launch vehicle that was operated from 2006 to 2009 by SpaceX, an American aerospace manufacturer. On 28 September 2008, Falcon 1 became the first privately developed fully liquid-fueled launch vehicle to go into orbit around the Earth.
The European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO) is a former European space research organisation. It was first developed in order to establish a satellite launch vehicle for Europe. The three-stage rocket developed was named Europa, after the mythical Greek goddess. Overall, there were 10 launches that occurred under ELDO's funding. The organisation consisted of Belgium, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. Australia was an associate member of the organisation.
The Zenit-3SL is an expendable carrier rocket operated by Sea Launch. First flown in 1999, it has been launched 36 times, with three failures and one partial failure. It is a member of the Zenit family of rockets, and is built by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau. RKK Energia produces the Block DM-SL upper stage, whilst the payload fairing is produced by Boeing. Launches are conducted from the Ocean Odyssey platform anchored on the equator in the Pacific Ocean, at a point with 154°W longitude, about 370 kilometres east of Kiritimati.
The Launch Vehicle Mark-3 or LVM3 is a three-stage medium-lift launch vehicle developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Primarily designed to launch communication satellites into geostationary orbit, it is also due to launch crewed missions under the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. LVM3 has a higher payload capacity than its predecessor, GSLV.
The British space programme is the British government's work to develop British space capabilities. The objectives of the current civil programme are to "win sustainable economic growth, secure new scientific knowledge and provide benefits to all citizens."
The Proton-M, (Протон-М) GRAU index 8K82M or 8K82KM, is an expendable Russian heavy-lift launch vehicle derived from the Soviet-developed Proton. It is built by Khrunichev, and launched from sites 81 and 200 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Commercial launches are marketed by International Launch Services (ILS), and generally use Site 200/39. The first Proton-M launch occurred on 7 April 2001.
Orba, also known as X-2, was intended to be the first satellite launched by a British rocket. It was launched at 00:34 GMT on 2 September 1970, atop a Black Arrow rocket from Launch Area 5B at Woomera, but failed to reach orbit after the second stage of the carrier rocket shut down 13 seconds early. Orba was built from spare parts due to funding restrictions, and was to have been used to measure upper atmosphere density by monitoring the decay of its orbit.
The Proton-K, also designated Proton 8K82K after its GRAU index or SL-12 after its model number, 8K82K, was a Russian, previously Soviet, carrier rocket derived from the earlier Proton. It was built by Khrunichev, and launched from sites 81 and 200 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.
Black Prince was a proposed British-led satellite expendable launch system. It would have made heavy use of the preceding Blue Streak missile and the Black Knight test rocket development programmes, as well as some new elements, to produce a British-built launcher capable of deploying medium-sized payloads into orbit. Popularly known as the Black Prince due to its assigned rainbow code, in official documentation, the platform was referred to as the Blue Streak Satellite Launch Vehicle (BSSLV).
↑ "Session 4". Black Arrow: British Rocket Science and the Cold War. Science Museum. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
↑ "Session 5". Black Arrow: British Rocket Science and the Cold War. Science Museum. Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
↑ Hill, C. N. "BA Sectional". Space UK. Archived from the original on 2 January 2008. Retrieved 8 March 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
↑ Hill, C. N. "Solid Fuel Motors". Space UK. Archived from the original on 18 January 2005. Retrieved 29 July 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
↑ "Gamma 2 Engine". Royal Aircraft Establishment Black Arrow Cutaway. Airspace. Archived from the original on 31 January 2009. Retrieved 4 March 2009.
1 2 Parkin, L. W. (April 1975). "The performance of Black Arrow in the launch of the Prospero satellite". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 28: 263. Bibcode:1975JBIS...28..263P.
1 2 3 Stracy, Mathew; Myerscough, Joe. Once We Had A Rocket (Documentary). Space.co.uk. Archived from the original(flv) on 14 February 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
↑ Hill, C. N. "North Sea". Black Arrow. SpaceUK. Archived from the original on 23 December 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
Gibson, Chris; Buttler, Tony (2007). British Secret Projects: Hypersonics, Ramjets & Missiles (2007ed.). England: Midland Publishing. ISBN9 78-1-85780-258-0.
Harland, David M.; Lorenz, Ralph D. (2005). Mason, John; Whyte, Alex (eds.). Space Systems Failures (2006ed.). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Praxis. pp.97–98. ISBN0-387-21519-0.
Harvey, Brian (2003). Europe's Space Programme: To Ariane and Beyond. Springer. ISBN1-85233-722-2.
Hill, C. N. (2001). "Black Arrow". A Vertical Empire: The History of the UK Rocket and Space Programme, 1950–1971 (2006ed.). London: Imperial College Press. pp.155–188. ISBN1-86094-268-7.
Millard, Douglas (2001). The Black Arrow Rocket: A History of a Satellite Launch Vehicle and its Engines. London: Science Museum. ISBN1-900747-41-3.
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