Coating

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Lacquer being sprayed onto a cabinet Spraying lacquer on cabinets LCCN2016850642.jpg
Lacquer being sprayed onto a cabinet

A coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object, or substrate. [1] The purpose of applying the coating may be decorative, functional, or both. [2] Coatings may be applied as liquids, gases or solids e.g. powder coatings.

Contents

Paints and lacquers are coatings that mostly have dual uses, which are protecting the substrate and being decorative, although some artists paints are only for decoration, and the paint on large industrial pipes is for identification (e.g. blue for process water, red for fire-fighting control) in addition to preventing corrosion. Along with corrosion resistance, functional coatings may also be applied to change the surface properties of the substrate, such as adhesion, wettability, or wear resistance. [3] In other cases the coating adds a completely new property, such as a magnetic response or electrical conductivity (as in semiconductor device fabrication, where the substrate is a wafer), and forms an essential part of the finished product. [4] [5]

A major consideration for most coating processes is controlling coating thickness. Methods of achieving this range from a simple brush to expensive precision machinery in the electronics industry. Limiting coating area is crucial in some applications, such as printing.

"Roll-to-roll" or "web-based" coating is the process of applying a thin film of functional material to a substrate on a roll, such as paper, fabric, film, foil, or sheet stock. This continuous process is highly efficient for producing large volumes of coated materials, which are essential in various industries including printing, packaging, and electronics. The technology allows for consistent high-quality application of the coating material over large surface areas, enhancing productivity and uniformity. [6]

Applications

Coatings can be both decorative and have other functions. [3] [7] A pipe carrying water for a fire suppression system can be coated with a red (for identification) anticorrosion paint. Most coatings to some extent protect the substrate, such as maintenance coatings for metals and concrete. [8] A decorative coating can offer a particular reflective property, such as high gloss, satin, matte, or flat appearance. [9]

A major coating application is to protect metal from corrosion. [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] Automotive coatings are used to enhance the appearance and durability of vehicles. These include primers, basecoats, and clearcoats, primarily applied with spray guns and electrostatically. [15]

The body and underbody of automobiles receive some form of underbody coating. [16] Such anticorrosion coatings may use graphene in combination with water-based epoxies. [17]

Coatings are used to seal the surface of concrete, such as seamless polymer/resin flooring, [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] bund wall/containment lining, waterproofing and damp proofing concrete walls, and bridge decks. [23] [24] [25] [26] Compare with tradition coatings, moisture curing polyurethane has been widely used because of the excellent adaptability and ease of construction. The mechanical properties could be enhanced by introducing multiple hydrogen bonds and optimize the microphase separation structure. [27]

Most roof coatings are designed primarily for waterproofing, though sun reflection (to reduce heating and cooling) may also be a consideration. They tend to be elastomeric to allow for movement of the roof without cracking within the coating membrane. [28] [29] [30]

Wood has been a key material in construction since ancient times, so its preservation by coating has received much attention. [31] Efforts to improve the performance of wood coatings continue. [32] [33] [34] [35] [36]

Coatings are used to alter tribological properties and wear characteristics. [37] [38] These include anti-friction, wear and scuffing resistance coatings for rolling-element bearings [39]

Architectural coatings [40] [41] or paints [42] are used to paint the exteriors and interiors of buildings, often called or external masonry coatings. Clear varnishes and lacquers are generally excluded. [40] Such products are usually designated for specific purposes such as roof coatings, wall paints, or deck finishes. [41] Coatings are eco-friendly building material that increases the efficiency of energy used and reduces impact on human well-being and the environment.[ citation needed ] The coatings are typically applied with brushes, rollers or sprayers. [43]

Wall coatings come in a variety of types, some of which can be applied by amateurs and DIYers without specialized training or equipment. For example, simple paint or primers can often be applied using brushes or rollers, and many people successfully complete such projects themselves. [44] [ page needed ] Most masonry surfaces can be treated an exterior wall coating, such as render, pebbledash, stone, stucco or brick. Most coatings are designed to be microporous in nature, allowing captive moisture within the wall to evaporate outside, whilst not allowing the passage of water to be drawn inside the building, thus largely providing a secondary feature apart from decoration, and that is to weatherproof a wall, and to stop damp forming inside the building. These coatings are intended for on-site application and do not include "factory-applied coatings for building products such as vinyl siding or aluminium window frames [that] may ultimately be used for architectural end-uses". [41]

Other

Other functions of coatings include:

Analysis and characterization

Numerous destructive and non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methods exist for characterizing coatings. [61] [62] [63] [64] The most common destructive method is microscopy of a mounted cross-section of the coating and its substrate. [65] [66] [67] The most common non-destructive techniques include ultrasonic thickness measurement, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), [68] X-Ray diffraction (XRD), photothermal coating thickness measurement [69] and micro hardness indentation. [70] X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is also a classical characterization method to investigate the chemical composition of the nanometer thick surface layer of a material. [71] Scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDX, or SEM-EDS) allows to visualize the surface texture and to probe its elementary chemical composition. [72] Other characterization methods include transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning tunneling microscope (STM), and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS). Various methods of Chromatography are also used, [73] as well as thermogravimetric analysis. [74]

Formulation

The formulation of a coating depends primarily on the function required of the coating and also on aesthetics required such as color and gloss. [75] The four primary ingredients are the resin (or binder), solvent which may be water (or solventless), pigment(s) and additives (defoamers, surfactants, optical brighteners, etc.). [76] [77] Research is ongoing to remove heavy metals from coating formulations completely. [78]

For example, on the basis of experimental and epidemiological evidence, it has been classified by the IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) as a human carcinogen by inhalation (class I) (ISPESL, 2008). [79]

Processes

Coating processes may be classified as follows:

Vapor deposition

Chemical vapor deposition

Physical vapor deposition

Chemical and electrochemical techniques

Spraying

Roll-to-roll coating processes

Common roll-to-roll coating processes include:

Physical

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Carroll, Gregory T.; Turro, Nicholas J.; Mammana, Angela; Koberstein, Jeffrey T. (2017). "Photochemical Immobilization of Polymers on a Surface: Controlling Film Thickness and Wettability" . Photochemistry and Photobiology. 93 (5): 1165–1169. doi:10.1111/php.12751. ISSN   0031-8655. PMID   28295380. S2CID   32105803.
  2. ↑ Howarth, G A; Manock, H L (July 1997). "Water-borne polyurethane dispersions and their use in functional coatings". Surface Coatings International. 80 (7): 324–328. doi:10.1007/bf02692680. ISSN   1356-0751. S2CID   137433262.
  3. 1 2 Howarth G.A "Synthesis of a legislation compliant corrosion protection coating system based on urethane, oxazolidine and waterborne epoxy technology" Master of Science Thesis April 1997 Imperial College London
  4. ↑ Wu, Kunjie; Li, Hongwei; Li, Liqiang; Zhang, Suna; Chen, Xiaosong; Xu, Zeyang; Zhang, Xi; Hu, Wenping; Chi, Lifeng; Gao, Xike; Meng, Yancheng (2016-06-28). "Controlled Growth of Ultrathin Film of Organic Semiconductors by Balancing the Competitive Processes in Dip-Coating for Organic Transistors" . Langmuir. 32 (25): 6246–6254. doi:10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b01083. ISSN   0743-7463. PMID   27267545.
  5. ↑ Campoy-Quiles, M.; Schmidt, M.; Nassyrov, D.; Peña, O.; Goñi, A. R.; Alonso, M. I.; Garriga, M. (2011-02-28). "Real-time studies during coating and post-deposition annealing in organic semiconductors" . Thin Solid Films. 5th International Conference on Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (ICSE-V). 519 (9): 2678–2681. Bibcode:2011TSF...519.2678C. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2010.12.228. ISSN   0040-6090.
  6. ↑ Granqvist, Claes G.; Bayrak Pehlivan, İlknur; Niklasson, Gunnar A. (2018-02-25). "Electrochromics on a roll: Web-coating and lamination for smart windows". Surface and Coatings Technology. Society of Vacuum Coaters Annual Technical Conference 2017. 336: 133–138. doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2017.08.006. ISSN   0257-8972. S2CID   136248754.
  7. ↑ Howarth, G A; Manock, H L (July 1997). "Water-borne polyurethane dispersions and their use in functional coatings". Surface Coatings International. 80 (7): 324–328. doi:10.1007/bf02692680. ISSN   1356-0751. S2CID   137433262.
  8. ↑ Howarth, G.A (1995). "5". In Karsa, D.R; Davies, W.D (eds.). Waterborne Maintenance Systems for Concrete and Metal Structures. Vol. 165. Cambridge, U.K: The Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN   0-85404-740-9.
  9. ↑ Akram, Waseem; Farhan Rafique, Amer; Maqsood, Nabeel; Khan, Afzal; Badshah, Saeed; Khan, Rafi Ullah (2020-01-14). "Characterization of PTFE Film on 316L Stainless Steel Deposited through Spin Coating and Its Anticorrosion Performance in Multi Acidic Mediums". Materials. 13 (2): 388. Bibcode:2020Mate...13..388A. doi: 10.3390/ma13020388 . ISSN   1996-1944. PMC   7014069 . PMID   31947700.
  10. ↑ Li, Jiao; Bai, Huanhuan; Feng, Zhiyuan (January 2023). "Advances in the Modification of Silane-Based Sol-Gel Coating to Improve the Corrosion Resistance of Magnesium Alloys". Molecules. 28 (6): 2563. doi: 10.3390/molecules28062563 . ISSN   1420-3049. PMC   10055842 . PMID   36985537.
  11. ↑ S. Grainger and J. Blunt, Engineering Coatings: Design and Application, Woodhead Publishing Ltd, UK, 2nd ed., 1998, ISBN   978-1-85573-369-5
  12. ↑ Ramakrishnan, T.; Raja Karthikeyan, K.; Tamilselvan, V.; Sivakumar, S.; Gangodkar, Durgaprasad; Radha, H. R.; Narain Singh, Anoop; Asrat Waji, Yosef (2022-01-13). "Study of Various Epoxy-Based Surface Coating Techniques for Anticorrosion Properties". Advances in Materials Science and Engineering. 2022 e5285919. doi: 10.1155/2022/5285919 . ISSN   1687-8434.
  13. ↑ Mutyala, Kalyan C.; Ghanbari, E.; Doll, G.L. (August 2017). "Effect of deposition method on tribological performance and corrosion resistance characteristics of Cr x N coatings deposited by physical vapor deposition". Thin Solid Films. 636: 232–239. Bibcode:2017TSF...636..232M. doi: 10.1016/j.tsf.2017.06.013 . ISSN   0040-6090.
  14. ↑ Gao, Mei-lian; Wu, Xiao-bo; Gao, Ping-ping; Lei, Ting; Liu, Chun-xuan; Xie, Zhi-yong (2019-11-01). "Properties of hydrophobic carbon–PTFE composite coating with high corrosion resistance by facile preparation on pure Ti" . Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China. 29 (11): 2321–2330. doi:10.1016/S1003-6326(19)65138-1. ISSN   1003-6326. S2CID   213902777.
  15. ↑ Jaiswal, Vishal. "Coating Process: Types, Applications, and Advantages". Archived from the original on May 5, 2023. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
  16. ↑ "Applying underbody sealant". How a Car Works. Retrieved 2022-11-14.
  17. ↑ Monetta, T.; Acquesta, A.; Carangelo, A.; Bellucci, F. (2018-09-01). "Considering the effect of graphene loading in water-based epoxy coatings". Journal of Coatings Technology and Research. 15 (5): 923–931. doi:10.1007/s11998-018-0045-8. ISSN   1935-3804. S2CID   139956928.
  18. ↑ "Polymer Flooring Systems For Industrial and Manufacturing Facilities". Surface Solutions. Retrieved 2022-11-14.
  19. ↑ "Arizona Polymer Flooring | Industrial Epoxy Floor Coatings". www.apfepoxy.com. Retrieved 2022-11-14.
  20. ↑ WO2016166361A1,WOLF, Elwin Aloysius Cornelius Adrianus DE; Thys, Ferry Ludovicus& Brinkhuis, Richard Hendrikus Gerritet al.,"Floor coating compositions",issued 2016-10-20
  21. ↑ Gelfant, Frederick (2015). "Polymeric Floor Coatings". Protective Organic Coatings. pp. 139–151. doi:10.31399/asm.hb.v05b.a0006037. ISBN   978-1-62708-172-6 . Retrieved 2022-11-14.
  22. ↑ Ateya, Taher & Balcı, Bekir & Bayraktar, Oğuzhan & Kaplan, Gökhan. (2019). Floor Coating Materials.
  23. ↑ O'Reilly, Matthew; Darwin, David; Browning, JoAnn; Locke, Carl E. (January 2011). Evaluation of Multiple Corrosion Protection Systems for Reinforced Concrete Bridge Decks.
  24. ↑ Weyers, Richard E.; Cady, Philip D. (1987-01-01). "Deterioration of Concrete Bridge Decks from Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel". Concrete International. 9 (1). ISSN   0162-4075.
  25. ↑ Grace, Nabil; Hanson, James; AbdelMessih, Hany (2004-10-01). "Inspection and Deterioration of Bridge Decks Constructed Using Stay-In-Place Metal Forms and Epoxy-Coated Reinforcement". Civil and Environmental Engineering.
  26. ↑ Babaei, K; Hawkins, N.M (1987). EVALUATION OF BRIDGE DECK PROTECTIVE STRATEGIES (PDF). Washington DC: Transportation Research Board. ISBN   0-309-04566-5. ISSN   0077-5614.
  27. ↑ Li, Weijie; Yao, Guangxin; Mo, Ruibin; Liu, Weiwei; Jiang, Xiang; Zhang, Xinya (2025). "Bioinspired Robust Mechanical and Waterproofing Properties of Moisture-Curing Polyurethane With Multiple Hydrogen Bonding Networks" . Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 142 (27) e57112. doi:10.1002/app.57112. ISSN   1097-4628.
  28. ↑ "History of Liquid Waterproofing". Liquid Roofing and Waterproofing Association. Archived from the original on 1 October 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2011.
  29. ↑ "Liquid-Applied Monolithic Membrane Systems". Roof Coatings Manufacturers Association. Retrieved 12 September 2011.
  30. ↑ "The benefits of liquid roofing". Why use liquid waterproofing. Liquid Roofing & Waterproofing Association. Archived from the original on 1 October 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2011.
  31. ↑ Rowell, Roger M. (2021-07-31). "Understanding Wood Surface Chemistry and Approaches to Modification: A Review". Polymers. 13 (15): 2558. doi: 10.3390/polym13152558 . ISSN   2073-4360. PMC   8348385 . PMID   34372161.
  32. ↑ WO2014190515A1,Yang, Xiaohong; Xu, Jianming& Xu, Yaweiet al.,"Wood coating composition",issued 2014-12-04
  33. ↑ Hazir, Ender; Koc, Kücük Huseyin; Hazir, Ender; Koc, Kücük Huseyin (December 2019). "Evaluation of wood surface coating performance using water based, solvent based and powder coating". Maderas. Ciencia y tecnología. 21 (4): 467–480. doi: 10.4067/S0718-221X2019005000404 . ISSN   0718-221X. S2CID   198185614.
  34. ↑ Désor, D.; Krieger, S.; Apitz, G.; Kuropka, R. (1999-10-01). "Water-borne acrylic dispersions for industrial wood coatings". Surface Coatings International. 82 (10): 488–496. doi:10.1007/BF02692644. ISSN   1356-0751. S2CID   135745347.
  35. ↑ Podgorski, L.; Roux, M. (1999-12-01). "Wood modification to improve the durability of coatings". Surface Coatings International. 82 (12): 590–596. doi:10.1007/BF02692672. ISSN   1356-0751. S2CID   138555194.
  36. ↑ Žigon, Jure; Kovač, Janez; Petrič, Marko (2022-01-01). "The influence of mechanical, physical and chemical pre-treatment processes of wood surface on the relationships of wood with a waterborne opaque coating". Progress in Organic Coatings. 162 106574. doi: 10.1016/j.porgcoat.2021.106574 . ISSN   0300-9440. S2CID   240200011.
  37. ↑ Tafreshi, Mahshid; Allahkaram, Saeid Reza; Mahdavi, Soheil (2020-12-01). "Effect of PTFE on characteristics, corrosion, and tribological behavior of Zn–Ni electrodeposits" . Surface Topography: Metrology and Properties. 8 (4): 045013. Bibcode:2020SuTMP...8d5013T. doi:10.1088/2051-672X/ab9f05. ISSN   2051-672X. S2CID   225695450.
  38. ↑ Peng, Shiguang; Zhang, Lin; Xie, Guoxin; Guo, Yue; Si, Lina; Luo, Jianbin (2019-09-01). "Friction and wear behavior of PTFE coatings modified with poly (methyl methacrylate)" . Composites Part B: Engineering. 172: 316–322. doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.04.047. ISSN   1359-8368. S2CID   155175532.
  39. ↑ Mutyala, Kalyan C.; Singh, Harpal; Evans, R. D.; Doll, G. L. (23 June 2016). "Effect of Diamond-Like Carbon Coatings on Ball Bearing Performance in Normal, Oil-Starved, and Debris-Damaged Conditions". Tribology Transactions. 59 (6): 1039–1047. doi:10.1080/10402004.2015.1131349. S2CID   138874627.
  40. 1 2 Ashton 1995, p. 696.
  41. 1 2 3 Rogers, Neal (January 2012). "Architectural Coatings". In Koleske, Joseph V. (ed.). Paint and Coating Testing Manual: 15th Edition of the Gardner-Sward Handbook. doi:10.1520/MNL12240M. ISBN   978-0-8031-8891-4 . Retrieved 10 January 2016.
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