Tricalcium phosphate

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Tricalcium phosphate
Ca3(PO4)2 from crystallography.jpg
Tricalcium phosphate.svg
Names
IUPAC name
Calcium phosphate
Other names
Tribasic calcium phosphate, tricalcium bis(phosphate)
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.028.946 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
EC Number
  • 231-840-8
PubChem CID
UNII
  • InChI=1S/3Ca.2H3O4P/c;;;2*1-5(2,3)4/h;;;2*(H3,1,2,3,4)/q3*+2;;/p-6 Yes check.svgY
    Key: QORWJWZARLRLPR-UHFFFAOYSA-H Yes check.svgY
  • InChI=1S/3Ca.2H3O4P/c;;;2*1-5(2,3)4/h;;;2*(H3,1,2,3,4)/q3*+2;;/p-6
    Key: QORWJWZARLRLPR-CYFPFDDLAC
  • Key: QORWJWZARLRLPR-UHFFFAOYSA-H
  • [O-]P(=O)([O-])[O-].[O-]P(=O)([O-])[O-].[Ca+2].[Ca+2].[Ca+2]
Properties
Ca3(PO4)2
Molar mass 310.18 g/mol
AppearanceWhite amorphous powder
Density 3.14 g/cm3 [1]
Melting point 1,670 °C (3,040 °F; 1,940 K) [1]
1.2 mg/kg [1]
2.07×10−33 [2]
Thermochemistry
−4126 kJ/mol (α-form) [3]
Pharmacology
A12AA01 ( WHO )
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704.svgHealth 1: Exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury. E.g. turpentineFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
1
0
0
Flash point Non-flammable
Related compounds
Other anions
Calcium pyrophosphate
Other cations
Trimagnesium phosphate
Trisodium phosphate
Tripotassium phosphate
Related compounds
 Monocalcium phosphate
Dicalcium phosphate
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
Yes check.svgY  verify  (what is  Yes check.svgYX mark.svgN ?)

Tricalcium phosphate (sometimes abbreviated TCP), more commonly known as Calcium phosphate, is a calcium salt of phosphoric acid with the chemical formula Ca3(PO4)2. It is also known as tribasic calcium phosphate and bone phosphate of lime (BPL). It is a white solid of low solubility. Most commercial samples of "tricalcium phosphate" are in fact hydroxyapatite. [4] [5]

Contents

It exists as three crystalline polymorphs α, α′, and β. The α and α′ states are stable at high temperatures.

Nomenclature

Calcium phosphate refers to numerous materials consisting of calcium ions (Ca2+) together with orthophosphates (PO3−
4), metaphosphates or pyrophosphates (P
2O4−
7) and occasionally oxide and hydroxide ions. Especially, the common mineral apatite has formula Ca5(PO4)3X, where X is F, Cl, OH, or a mixture; it is hydroxyapatite if the extra ion is mainly hydroxide. Much of the "tricalcium phosphate" on the market is actually powdered hydroxyapatite. [5]

Preparation

Tricalcium phosphate is produced commercially by treating hydroxyapatite with phosphoric acid and slaked lime. [4]

It cannot be precipitated directly from aqueous solution. Typically double decomposition reactions are employed, involving a soluble phosphate and calcium salts, e.g. (NH4)2HPO4 + Ca(NO3)2. [6] is performed under carefully controlled pH conditions. The precipitate will either be "amorphous tricalcium phosphate", ATCP, or calcium deficient hydroxyapatite, CDHA, Ca9(HPO4)(PO4)5(OH), (note CDHA is sometimes termed apatitic calcium triphosphate). [6] [7] [8] Crystalline tricalcium phosphate can be obtained by calcining the precipitate. β-Ca3(PO4)2 is generally formed, higher temperatures are required to produce α-Ca3(PO4)2.

An alternative to the wet procedure entails heating a mixture of a calcium pyrophosphate and calcium carbonate: [7]

CaCO3 + Ca2P2O7 → Ca3(PO4)2 + CO2

Structure of β-, α- and α′- Ca3(PO4)2 polymorphs

Tricalcium phosphate has three recognised polymorphs, the rhombohedral β form (shown above), and two high temperature forms, monoclinic α and hexagonal α′. β-Tricalcium phosphate has a crystallographic density of 3.066 g cm−3 while the high temperature forms are less dense, α-tricalcium phosphate has a density of 2.866 g cm−3 and α′-tricalcium phosphate has a density of 2.702 g cm−3 All forms have complex structures consisting of tetrahedral phosphate centers linked through oxygen to the calcium ions. [9] The high temperature forms each have two types of columns, one containing only calcium ions and the other both calcium and phosphate. [10]

There are differences in chemical and biological properties between the β and α forms, the α form is more soluble and biodegradable. Both forms are available commercially and are present in formulations used in medical and dental applications. [10]

Occurrence

Calcium phosphate is one of the main combustion products of bone (see bone ash). Calcium phosphate is also commonly derived from inorganic sources such as mineral rock. [11] Tricalcium phosphate occurs naturally in several forms, including:

Biphasic calcium phosphate, BCP

Biphasic calcium phosphate, BCP, was originally reported as tricalcium phosphate, but X-Ray diffraction techniques showed that the material was an intimate mixture of two phases, hydroxyapatite (HA) and β-tricalcium phosphate. [12] It is a ceramic. [13] Preparation involves sintering, causing irreversible decomposition of calcium deficient apatites [7] alternatively termed non-stoichiometric apatites or basic calcium phosphate. [14] An example is: [15]

Ca10−δ(PO4)6−δ(HPO4)δ(OH)2−δ → (1−δ) Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 + 3δ Ca3(PO4)2

β-TCP can contain impurities, for example calcium pyrophosphate, Ca2P2O7 and apatite. β-TCP is bioresorbable. The biodegradation of BCP involves faster dissolution of the β-TCP phase followed by elimination of HA crystals. β-TCP does not dissolve in body fluids at physiological pH levels, dissolution requires cell activity producing acidic pH. [7]

Uses

Food additive

Tricalcium phosphate is used in powdered spices as an anticaking agent, e.g. to prevent table salt from caking. The calcium phosphates have been assigned European food additive number E341.

Health and beauty products

It is also found in baby powder, antacids and toothpaste. [4] Toothpastes with functionalized β-tricalcium phosphate (fTCP) may help remineralize tooth enamel. [16] [17] [18]

Biomedical

It is also used as a nutritional supplement [19] and occurs naturally in cow milk,[ citation needed ] although the most common and economical forms for supplementation are calcium carbonate (which should be taken with food) and calcium citrate (which can be taken without food). [20] There is some debate about the different bioavailabilities of the different calcium salts.

It can be used as a tissue replacement for repairing bony defects when autogenous bone graft is not feasible or possible. [21] [22] [23] It may be used alone or in combination with a biodegradable, resorbable polymer such as polyglycolic acid. [24] It may also be combined with autologous materials for a bone graft. [25] [26]

Porous β-tricalcium phosphate scaffolds are employed as drug carrier systems for local drug delivery in bone. [27]

Natural occurrence

Tuite, a natural analogue of tricalcium orthophosphate(V), is a rare component of some meteorites. Its formation is related to shock metamorphism. [28]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calcium</span> Chemical element with atomic number 20 (Ca)

Calcium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to its heavier homologues strontium and barium. It is the fifth most abundant element in Earth's crust, and the third most abundant metal, after iron and aluminium. The most common calcium compound on Earth is calcium carbonate, found in limestone and the fossilised remnants of early sea life; gypsum, anhydrite, fluorite, and apatite are also sources of calcium. The name derives from Latin calx "lime", which was obtained from heating limestone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apatite</span> Mineral group, calcium phosphate

Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually hydroxyapatite, fluorapatite and chlorapatite, with high concentrations of OH−, F− and Cl− ion, respectively, in the crystal. The formula of the admixture of the three most common endmembers is written as Ca10(PO4)6(OH,F,Cl)2, and the crystal unit cell formulae of the individual minerals are written as Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, Ca10(PO4)6F2 and Ca10(PO4)6Cl2.

A polyphosphate is a salt or ester of polymeric oxyanions formed from tetrahedral PO4 (phosphate) structural units linked together by sharing oxygen atoms. Polyphosphates can adopt linear or a cyclic (also called, ring) structures. In biology, the polyphosphate esters ADP and ATP are involved in energy storage. A variety of polyphosphates find application in mineral sequestration in municipal waters, generally being present at 1 to 5 ppm. GTP, CTP, and UTP are also nucleotides important in the protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, and carbohydrate metabolism, respectively. Polyphosphates are also used as food additives, marked E452.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ultrastructure</span> Detail hidden to optical microscopes

Ultrastructure is the architecture of cells and biomaterials that is visible at higher magnifications than found on a standard optical light microscope. This traditionally meant the resolution and magnification range of a conventional transmission electron microscope (TEM) when viewing biological specimens such as cells, tissue, or organs. Ultrastructure can also be viewed with scanning electron microscopy and super-resolution microscopy, although TEM is a standard histology technique for viewing ultrastructure. Such cellular structures as organelles, which allow the cell to function properly within its specified environment, can be examined at the ultrastructural level.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calcium phosphate</span> Chemical compound

The term calcium phosphate refers to a family of materials and minerals containing calcium ions (Ca2+) together with inorganic phosphate anions. Some so-called calcium phosphates contain oxide and hydroxide as well. Calcium phosphates are white solids of nutritional value and are found in many living organisms, e.g., bone mineral and tooth enamel. In milk, it exists in a colloidal form in micelles bound to casein protein with magnesium, zinc, and citrate–collectively referred to as colloidal calcium phosphate (CCP). Various calcium phosphate minerals are used in the production of phosphoric acid and fertilizers. Overuse of certain forms of calcium phosphate can lead to nutrient-containing surface runoff and subsequent adverse effects upon receiving waters such as algal blooms and eutrophication (over-enrichment with nutrients and minerals).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydroxyapatite</span> Naturally occurring mineral form of calcium apatite

Hydroxyapatite is a naturally occurring mineral form of calcium apatite with the formula Ca5(PO4)3(OH), often written Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 to denote that the crystal unit cell comprises two entities. It is the hydroxyl endmember of the complex apatite group. The OH− ion can be replaced by fluoride or chloride, producing fluorapatite or chlorapatite. It crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal system. Pure hydroxyapatite powder is white. Naturally occurring apatites can, however, also have brown, yellow, or green colorations, comparable to the discolorations of dental fluorosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fluoride therapy</span> Medical use of fluoride

Fluoride therapy is the use of fluoride for medical purposes. Fluoride supplements are recommended to prevent tooth decay in children older than six months in areas where the drinking water is low in fluoride. It is typically used as a liquid, pill, or paste by mouth. Fluoride has also been used to treat a number of bone diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioglass 45S5</span> Bioactive glass biomaterial

Bioglass 45S5 or calcium sodium phosphosilicate, is a bioactive glass specifically composed of 45 wt% SiO2, 24.5 wt% CaO, 24.5 wt% Na2O, and 6.0 wt% P2O5. Typical applications of Bioglass 45S5 include: bone grafting biomaterials, repair of periodontal defects, cranial and maxillofacial repair, wound care, blood loss control, stimulation of vascular regeneration, and nerve repair.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioactive glass</span> Surface reactive glass-ceramic biomaterial

Bioactive glasses are a group of surface reactive glass-ceramic biomaterials and include the original bioactive glass, Bioglass. The biocompatibility and bioactivity of these glasses has led them to be used as implant devices in the human body to repair and replace diseased or damaged bones. Most bioactive glasses are silicate-based glasses that are degradable in body fluids and can act as a vehicle for delivering ions beneficial for healing. Bioactive glass is differentiated from other synthetic bone grafting biomaterials, in that it is the only one with anti-infective and angiogenic properties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bone grafting</span> Bone transplant

Bone grafting is a surgical procedure that replaces missing bone in order to repair bone fractures that are extremely complex, pose a significant health risk to the patient, or fail to heal properly. Some small or acute fractures can be cured without bone grafting, but the risk is greater for large fractures like compound fractures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium monofluorophosphate</span> Chemical compound

Sodium monofluorophosphate, commonly abbreviated SMFP, is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Na2PO3F. Typical for a salt, SMFP is odourless, colourless, and water-soluble. This salt is an ingredient in some toothpastes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dicalcium phosphate</span> Chemical compound

Dicalcium phosphate is the calcium phosphate with the formula CaHPO4 and its dihydrate. The "di" prefix in the common name arises because the formation of the HPO42– anion involves the removal of two protons from phosphoric acid, H3PO4. It is also known as dibasic calcium phosphate or calcium monohydrogen phosphate. Dicalcium phosphate is used as a food additive, it is found in some toothpastes as a polishing agent and is a biomaterial.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphorylase kinase</span>

Phosphorylase kinase (PhK) is a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase which activates glycogen phosphorylase to release glucose-1-phosphate from glycogen. PhK phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase at two serine residues, triggering a conformational shift which favors the more active glycogen phosphorylase "a" form over the less active glycogen phosphorylase b.

Amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) is a glassy solid that is formed from the chemical decomposition of a mixture of dissolved phosphate and calcium salts (e.g. (NH4)2HPO4 + Ca(NO3)2). The resulting amorphous mixture consists mostly of calcium and phosphate, but also contains varying amounts of water and hydrogen and hydroxide ions, depending on the synthesis conditions. Such mixtures are also known as calcium phosphate cement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioceramic</span> Type of ceramic materials that are biocompatible

Bioceramics and bioglasses are ceramic materials that are biocompatible. Bioceramics are an important subset of biomaterials. Bioceramics range in biocompatibility from the ceramic oxides, which are inert in the body, to the other extreme of resorbable materials, which are eventually replaced by the body after they have assisted repair. Bioceramics are used in many types of medical procedures. Bioceramics are typically used as rigid materials in surgical implants, though some bioceramics are flexible. The ceramic materials used are not the same as porcelain type ceramic materials. Rather, bioceramics are closely related to either the body's own materials or are extremely durable metal oxides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artificial bone</span> Bone-like material

Artificial bone refers to bone-like material created in a laboratory that can be used in bone grafts, to replace human bone that was lost due to severe fractures, disease, etc.

Octacalcium phosphate (sometimes referred to as OCP) is a form of calcium phosphate with formula Ca8H2(PO4)6·5H2O. OCP may be a precursor to tooth enamel, dentine, and bones. OCP is a precursor of hydroxyapatite (HA), an inorganic biomineral that is important in bone growth. OCP has garnered lots of attention due to its inherent biocompatibility. While OCP exhibits good properties in terms of bone growth, very stringent synthesis requirements make it difficult for mass productions, but nevertheless has shown promise not only in-vitro, but also in in-vivo clinical case studies.

A simulated body fluid (SBF) is a solution with an ion concentration close to that of human blood plasma, kept under mild conditions of pH and identical physiological temperature. SBF was first introduced by Kokubo et al. in order to evaluate the changes on a surface of a bioactive glass ceramic. Later, cell culture media, in combination with some methodologies adopted in cell culture, were proposed as an alternative to conventional SBF in assessing the bioactivity of materials.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chromium(III) phosphate</span> Chemical compound

Chromium(III) phosphate describes inorganic compounds with the chemical formula CrPO4·(H2O)n, where n = 0, 4, or 6. All are deeply colored solids. Anhydrous CrPO4 is green. The hexahydrate CrPO4·6H2O is violet.

Tetracalcium phosphate is the compound Ca4(PO4)2O, (4CaO·P2O5). It is the most basic of the calcium phosphates, and has a Ca/P ratio of 2, making it the most phosphorus poor phosphate. It is found as the mineral hilgenstockite, which is formed in industrial phosphate rich slag (called "Thomas slag"). This slag was used as a fertiliser due to the higher solubility of tetracalcium phosphate relative to apatite minerals. Tetracalcium phosphate is a component in some calcium phosphate cements that have medical applications.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Haynes, William M., ed. (2016). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (97th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 4.54. ISBN   9781498754293.
  2. ↑ John Rumble (June 18, 2018). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (99 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 5–188. ISBN   978-1-138-56163-2.
  3. ↑ Zumdahl, Steven S. (2009). Chemical Principles 6th Ed. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. A21. ISBN   978-0-618-94690-7.
  4. 1 2 3 Klaus Schrödter; Gerhard Bettermann; Thomas Staffel; Friedrich Wahl; Thomas Klein; Thomas Hofmann (2012). "Phosphoric Acid and Phosphates". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a19_465.pub3. ISBN   978-3527306732.
  5. 1 2 El Moussaoui, Youssef; Terrisse, Hélène; Quillard, Sophie; Ropers, Marie-Hélène; Humbert, Bernard (January 2023). "The True Nature of Tricalcium Phosphate Used as Food Additive (E341(iii))". Nanomaterials. 13 (12): 1823. doi: 10.3390/nano13121823 . ISSN   2079-4991. PMC   10303396 . PMID   37368253.
  6. 1 2 Destainville, A.; Champion, E.; Bernache-Assollant, D.; Laborde, E. (2003). "Synthesis, characterization and thermal behavior of apatitic tricalcium phosphate". Materials Chemistry and Physics. 80 (1): 269–277. doi:10.1016/S0254-0584(02)00466-2.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Rey, C.; Combes, C.; Drouet, C.; Grossin, D. (2011). "1.111 – Bioactive Ceramics: Physical Chemistry". In Ducheyne, Paul (ed.). Comprehensive Biomaterials. Vol. 1. Elsevier. pp. 187–281. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-055294-1.00178-1. ISBN   978-0-08-055294-1.
  8. ↑ Dorozhkin, Sergey V. (December 2012). "Amorphous calcium (ortho)phosphates". Acta Biomaterialia. 6 (12): 4457–4475. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2010.06.031. PMID   20609395.
  9. ↑ Yashima, M.; Sakai, A.; Kamiyama, T.; Hoshikawa, A. (2003). "Crystal structure analysis of β-tricalcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2 by neutron powder diffraction". RNAl of Solid State Chemistry. 175 (2): 272–277. Bibcode:2003JSSCh.175..272Y. doi:10.1016/S0022-4596(03)00279-2.
  10. 1 2 Carrodeguas, R.G.; De Aza, S. (2011). "α-Tricalcium phosphate: Synthesis, properties and biomedical applications". Acta Biomaterialia. 7 (10): 3536–3546. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2011.06.019. PMID   21712105.
  11. ↑ Yacoubou, Jeanne, MS. Vegetarian Journal's Guide To Food Ingredients "Guide to Food Ingredients". The Vegetarian Resource Group, n.d. Web. 14 Sept. 2012.
  12. ↑ Daculsi, G.; Legeros, R. (2008). "17 – Tricalcium phosphate / hydroxyapatite biphasic ceramics". In Kokubo, Tadashi (ed.). Bioceramics and their Clinical Applications. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 395–423. doi:10.1533/9781845694227.2.395. ISBN   978-1-84569-204-9.
  13. ↑ Salinas, Antonio J.; Vallet-Regi, Maria (2013). "Bioactive ceramics: from bone grafts to tissue engineering". RSC Advances. 3 (28): 11116–11131. Bibcode:2013RSCAd...311116S. doi:10.1039/C3RA00166K.
  14. ↑ Elliott, J.C. (1994). "3 – Hydroxyapatite and Nonstoichiometric Apatites". Studies in Inorganic Chemistry. Vol. 18. Elsevier. pp. 111–189. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-81582-8.50008-0. ISBN   978-0-444-81582-8.
  15. ↑ Vallet-Regí, M.; Rodríguez-Lorenzo, L.M. (November 1997). "Synthesis and characterisation of calcium deficient apatite". Solid State Ionics. 101–103, Part 2: 1279–1285. doi:10.1016/S0167-2738(97)00213-0.
  16. ↑ Hamba H, Nakamura K, Nikaido T, Tagami J, Muramatsu T (October 2020). "Remineralization of enamel subsurface lesions using toothpaste containing tricalcium phosphate and fluoride: an in vitro µCT analysis". BMC Oral Health. 20 (1): 292. doi: 10.1186/s12903-020-01286-1 . PMC   7590595 . PMID   33109184.
  17. ↑ Meyer F, Amaechi BT, Fabritius HO, Enax J (2018). "Overview of Calcium Phosphates used in Biomimetic Oral Care". The Open Dentistry Journal. 12: 406–423. doi: 10.2174/1874210601812010406 . PMC   5997847 . PMID   29988215.
  18. ↑ Limeback H, Enax J, Meyer F (July 2023). "Improving Oral Health with Fluoride-Free Calcium-Phosphate-Based Biomimetic Toothpastes: An Update of the Clinical Evidence". Biomimetics. 8 (4): 331. doi: 10.3390/biomimetics8040331 . PMC   10452078 . PMID   37622936.
  19. ↑ Bonjour JP, Carrie AL, Ferrari S, Clavien H, Slosman D, Theintz G, Rizzoli R (March 1997). "Calcium-enriched foods and bone mass growth in prepubertal girls: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial". J. Clin. Invest. 99 (6): 1287–1294. doi:10.1172/JCI119287. PMC   507944 . PMID   9077538.
  20. ↑ Straub DA (June 2007). "Calcium supplementation in clinical practice: a review of forms, doses, and indications". Nutr Clin Pract. 22 (3): 286–296. doi:10.1177/0115426507022003286. PMID   17507729.
  21. ↑ Paderni S, Terzi S, Amendola L (September 2009). "Major bone defect treatment with an osteoconductive bone substitute". Musculoskelet Surg. 93 (2): 89–96. doi:10.1007/s12306-009-0028-0. PMID   19711008. S2CID   33413039.
  22. ↑ Moore DC, Chapman MW, Manske D (1987). "The evaluation of a biphasic calcium phosphate ceramic for use in grafting long-bone diaphyseal defects". Journal of Orthopaedic Research . 5 (3): 356–365. doi:10.1002/jor.1100050307. PMID   3040949. S2CID   41579389.
  23. ↑ Lange TA, Zerwekh JE, Peek RD, Mooney V, Harrison BH (1986). "Granular tricalcium phosphate in large cancellous defects". Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science . 16 (6): 467–472. PMID   3541772.
  24. ↑ Cao H, Kuboyama N (September 2009). "A biodegradable porous composite scaffold of PGA/β-TCP for bone tissue engineering". Bone . 46 (2): 386–395. doi:10.1016/j.bone.2009.09.031. PMID   19800045.
  25. ↑ Erbe EM, Marx JG, Clineff TD, Bellincampi LD (October 2001). "Potential of an ultraporous β-tricalcium phosphate synthetic cancellous bone void filler and bone marrow aspirate composite graft". European Spine Journal . 10 (Suppl 2): S141–S146. doi:10.1007/s005860100287. PMC   3611552 . PMID   11716011.
  26. ↑ Bansal S, Chauhan V, Sharma S, Maheshwari R, Juyal A, Raghuvanshi S (July 2009). "Evaluation of hydroxyapatite and beta-tricalcium phosphate mixed with bone marrow aspirate as a bone graft substitute for posterolateral spinal fusion". Indian Journal of Orthopaedics. 43 (3): 234–239. doi: 10.4103/0019-5413.49387 (inactive 1 November 2024). PMC   2762171 . PMID   19838344.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  27. ↑ Kundu, B; Lemos A; Soundrapandian C; Sen PS; Datta S; Ferreira JMF; Basu D (2010). "Development of porous HAp and β-TCP scaffolds by starch consolidation with foaming method and drug-chitosan bilayered scaffold based drug delivery system". J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 21 (11): 2955–2969. doi:10.1007/s10856-010-4127-0. PMID   20644982. S2CID   6483779.
  28. ↑ Tuite. Mindat.org
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