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3D model (JSmol) | |||
ChEBI | |||
ChEMBL | |||
ChemSpider | |||
ECHA InfoCard | 100.000.270 | ||
KEGG | |||
PubChem CID | |||
UNII | |||
CompTox Dashboard (EPA) | |||
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Properties | |||
C6H12N2O4S2 | |||
Molar mass | 240.29 g·mol−1 | ||
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Safety data sheet (SDS) | External MSDS | ||
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). |
Cystine is the oxidized derivative of the amino acid cysteine and has the formula (SCH2CH(NH2)CO2H)2. It is a white solid that is poorly soluble in water. As a residue in proteins, cystine serves two functions: a site of redox reactions and a mechanical linkage that allows proteins to retain their three-dimensional structure. [1]
Cystine is the disulfide derived from the amino acid cysteine. The conversion can be viewed as an oxidation:
Cystine contains a disulfide bond, two amine groups, and two carboxylic acid groups. As for other amino acids, the amine and carboxylic acid groups exist in rapid equilibrium with the ammonium-carboxylate tautomer. The great majority of the literature concerns the l,l-cystine, derived from l-cysteine. Other isomers include d,d-cystine and the meso isomer d,l-cystine, neither of which is biologically significant.
Cystine is common in many foods such as eggs, meat, dairy products, and whole grains as well as skin, horns and hair. It was not recognized as being derived of proteins until it was isolated from the horn of a cow in 1899. [2] Human hair and skin contain approximately 10–14% cystine by mass. [3]
Cystine was discovered in 1810 by the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston, who called it "cystic oxide". [4] In 1833, the Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius named the amino acid "cystine". [5] The Norwegian chemist Christian J. Thaulow determined, in 1838, the empirical formula of cystine. [6] In 1884, the German chemist Eugen Baumann found that when cystine was treated with a reducing agent, cystine revealed itself to be a dimer of a monomer which he named "cysteïne". [7] In 1899, cystine was first isolated from protein (horn tissue) by the Swedish chemist Karl A. H. Mörner (1855-1917). [8] The chemical structure of cystine was determined by synthesis in 1903 by the German chemist Emil Erlenmeyer. [9] [10] [11]
It is formed from the oxidation of two cysteine molecules, which results in the formation of a disulfide bond. In cell biology, cystine residues (found in proteins) only exist in non-reductive (oxidative) organelles, such as the secretory pathway (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vesicles) and extracellular spaces (e.g., extracellular matrix). Under reductive conditions (in the cytoplasm, nucleus, etc.) cysteine is predominant. The disulfide link is readily reduced to give the corresponding thiol cysteine. Typical thiols for this reaction are mercaptoethanol and dithiothreitol:
Because of the facility of the thiol-disulfide exchange, the nutritional benefits and sources of cystine are identical to those for the more-common cysteine. Disulfide bonds cleave more rapidly at higher temperatures. [12]
The presence of cystine in urine is often indicative of amino acid reabsorption defects. Cystinuria has been reported to occur in dogs. [13] In humans the excretion of high levels of cystine crystals can be indicative of cystinosis, a rare genetic disease. Cystine stones account for about 1-2% of kidney stone disease in adults. [14] [15]
Cystine serves as a substrate for the cystine-glutamate antiporter. This transport system, which is highly specific for cystine and glutamate, increases the concentration of cystine inside the cell. In this system, the anionic form of cystine is transported in exchange for glutamate. Cystine is quickly reduced to cysteine.[ citation needed ] Cysteine prodrugs, e.g. acetylcysteine, induce release of glutamate into the extracellular space.
This article is missing information about hair growth supplements.(November 2022) |
Cysteine supplements are sometimes marketed as anti-aging products with claims of improved skin elasticity.[ citation needed ] Cysteine is more easily absorbed by the body than cystine, so most supplements contain cysteine rather than cystine. N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) is better absorbed than other cysteine or cystine supplements.
Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. Although over 500 amino acids exist in nature, by far the most important are the 22 α-amino acids incorporated into proteins. Only these 22 appear in the genetic code of all life.
Cysteine is a semiessential proteinogenic amino acid with the formula HOOC−CH(−NH2)−CH2−SH. The thiol side chain in cysteine often participates in enzymatic reactions as a nucleophile. Cysteine is chiral, only L-cysteine is found in nature.
Arginine is the amino acid with the formula (H2N)(HN)CN(H)(CH2)3CH(NH2)CO2H. The molecule features a guanidino group appended to a standard amino acid framework. At physiological pH, the carboxylic acid is deprotonated (−CO2−) and both the amino and guanidino groups are protonated, resulting in a cation. Only the l-arginine (symbol Arg or R) enantiomer is found naturally. Arg residues are common components of proteins. It is encoded by the codons CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, and AGG. The guanidine group in arginine is the precursor for the biosynthesis of nitric oxide. Like all amino acids, it is a white, water-soluble solid.
Serine is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an α-amino group, a carboxyl group, and a side chain consisting of a hydroxymethyl group, classifying it as a polar amino acid. It can be synthesized in the human body under normal physiological circumstances, making it a nonessential amino acid. It is encoded by the codons UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU and AGC.
In biochemistry, a disulfide refers to a functional group with the structure R−S−S−R′. The linkage is also called an SS-bond or sometimes a disulfide bridge and is usually derived by the coupling of two thiol groups. In biology, disulfide bridges formed between thiol groups in two cysteine residues are an important component of the secondary and tertiary structure of proteins. Persulfide usually refers to R−S−S−H compounds.
In organic chemistry, a thiol, or thiol derivative, is any organosulfur compound of the form R−SH, where R represents an alkyl or other organic substituent. The −SH functional group itself is referred to as either a thiol group or a sulfhydryl group, or a sulfanyl group. Thiols are the sulfur analogue of alcohols, and the word is a blend of "thio-" with "alcohol".
Post-translational modification (PTM) is the covalent process of changing proteins following protein biosynthesis. PTMs may involve enzymes or occur spontaneously. Proteins are created by ribosomes translating mRNA into polypeptide chains, which may then change to form the mature protein product. PTMs are important components in cell signalling, as for example when prohormones are converted to hormones.
Lanthionine is a nonproteinogenic amino acid with the chemical formula (HOOC-CH(NH2)-CH2-S-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH). It is typically formed by a cysteine residue and a dehydrated serine residue. Despite its name, lanthionine does not contain the element lanthanum.
S-Allylcysteine (SAC) is an organosulfur compound that has the formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2SCH2C=CH2. It is the S-allylated derivative of the amino acid cysteine. As such only the L-enantiomer is significant biologically. SAC constituent of aged garlic. A number of related compounds are found in garlic, including the disulfide S-"allylmercaptocysteine" and γ-glutamyl-S-allylcysteine" (GSAC).
Cysteine metabolism refers to the biological pathways that consume or create cysteine. The pathways of different amino acids and other metabolites interweave and overlap to creating complex systems.
Sulfur assimilation is the process by which living organisms incorporate sulfur into their biological molecules. In plants, sulfate is absorbed by the roots and then be transported to the chloroplasts by the transipration stream where the sulfur are reduced to sulfide with the help of a series of enzymatic reactions. Furthermore, the reduced sulfur is incorporated into cysteine, an amino acid that is a precursor to many other sulfur-containing compounds. In animals, sulfur assimilation occurs primarily through the diet, as animals cannot produce sulfur-containing compounds directly. Sulfur is incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine and methionine, which are used to build proteins and other important molecules. Besides, With the rapid development of economy, the increase emission of sulfur results in environmental issues, such as acid rain and hydrogen sulfilde.
Amino acid synthesis is the set of biochemical processes by which the amino acids are produced. The substrates for these processes are various compounds in the organism's diet or growth media. Not all organisms are able to synthesize all amino acids. For example, humans can synthesize 11 of the 20 standard amino acids. These 11 are called the non-essential amino acids).
The Erlenmeyer–Plöchl azlactone and amino acid synthesis, named after Friedrich Gustav Carl Emil Erlenmeyer who partly discovered the reaction, is a series of chemical reactions which transform an N-acyl glycine to various other amino acids via an oxazolone.
O-Acetylserine is an α-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2OC(O)CH3. It is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of the common amino acid cysteine in bacteria and plants. O-Acetylserine is biosynthesized by acetylation of the serine by the enzyme serine transacetylase. The enzyme O-acetylserine (thiol)-lyase, using sulfide sources, converts this ester into cysteine, releasing acetate:
Cystine/glutamate transporter is an antiporter that in humans is encoded by the SLC7A11 gene.
Glyceric acid refers to organic compounds with the formula HOCH2CH(OH)CO2H. It occurs naturally and is classified as three-carbon sugar acid. It is chiral. Salts and esters of glyceric acid are known as glycerates.
In biochemistry, non-coded or non-proteinogenic amino acids are distinct from the 22 proteinogenic amino acids which are naturally encoded in the genome of organisms for the assembly of proteins. However, over 140 non-proteinogenic amino acids occur naturally in proteins and thousands more may occur in nature or be synthesized in the laboratory. Chemically synthesized amino acids can be called unnatural amino acids. Unnatural amino acids can be synthetically prepared from their native analogs via modifications such as amine alkylation, side chain substitution, structural bond extension cyclization, and isosteric replacements within the amino acid backbone. Many non-proteinogenic amino acids are important:
Selenocystine is the amino acid with the formula (HO2CCH CH2Se)2. It is the oxidized derivative of the canonical amino acid selenocysteine. The compound can also be prepared synthetically from serine. Because selenocysteine is not easily isolated or handled, it is often generated by reduction of selenocystine in situ. The selenium-selenium bond length is 2.321 Å, which is 14% longer than the disulfide bond in cystine at 2.040 Å.
Tellurocysteine is an amino acid with the formula HTeCH2CH(NH2)CO2H. It would be the heavy analogue of serine, cysteine, and selenocysteine. Tellurol (RTeH) is a rare and fragile functional group, especially alkyl derivatives. Furthermore the C-Te bond is weak compared to 234 kJ/mol for the C-Se bond. These factors combine to make tellurocysteine very labile. Even selenocysteine occurs only rarely in nature. Instead of tellurocysteine, tellurocystine is generally isolated instead. It has the formula (TeCH2CH CO2H)2, with a central Te-Te bond.
Chloroalanine (3-chloroalanine) is an unnatural amino acid with the formula ClCH2CH(NH2)CO2H. It is a white, water-soluble solid. The compound is usually derived from chlorination of serine. The compound is used in the synthesis of other amino acids by replacement of the chloride. Protected forms of the related iodoalanine are also known.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) From p. 424: "10. Cystine. Cette substance a été découverte dans les calculs urinaires par Wollaston, […] je me suis donc permis de changer le nom qu'avait proposé cet homme distingué." (10. Cystine. This substance was discovered in urinary calculi by Wollaston, who gave it the name of "cystic oxide" because it dissolves as much in acids as in alkalis, and it resembles, in this respect, some metallic oxides; but, in a way, the reason [that was] alleged to justify it is not valid: I have therefore taken the liberty of changing the name that this distinguished man had proposed.)