Guarana

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Guaraná
Paullinia cupana - Kohler-s Medizinal-Pflanzen-234.jpg
Guarana - Paullinia cupana.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Sapindaceae
Genus: Paullinia
Species:
P. cupana
Binomial name
Paullinia cupana

Guaraná ( /ɡwəˈrɑːnə/ from the Portuguese guaraná [ɡʷaɾɐˈna] ; Paullinia cupana, syns. P. crysan, P. sorbilis) is a climbing plant in the family Sapindaceae, native to the Amazon basin and especially common in Brazil. Guaraná has large leaves and clusters of flowers, and is best known for the seeds from its beans, which are about the size of a coffee bean.

Contents

As a dietary supplement or herb, guaraná seed is an effective stimulant: [1] it contains about twice the concentration of caffeine found in coffee beans (about 2–8% caffeine in guaraná seeds, [2] compared to about 1–3% for coffee beans). [3] The additive has gained notoriety for being used in energy drinks. As with other plants producing caffeine, the high concentration of caffeine is a defensive toxin that repels insects from the berry and seeds. [4]

The color of the fruit ranges from brown to red and it contains black seeds that are partly covered by white arils. [5] The color contrast when the fruit is split open has been compared with the appearance of eyeballs, [5] and has become the basis of an origin myth among the Sateré-Mawé people. [6]

History and culture

The word guaraná has its origins in the Sateré-Maué word for the plant, warana. [7]

Guaraná plays an important role in Tupi and Guarani culture. According to a myth attributed to the Sateré-Maué tribe, guaraná's domestication originated with a deity killing a beloved village child. To console the villagers, a more benevolent god plucked the left eye from the child and planted it in the forest, resulting in the wild variety of guaraná. The god then plucked the right eye from the child and planted it in the village, giving rise to domesticated guaraná. [5] [8]

The Guaranis make a herbal tea called cupana [9] by shelling, washing and drying the seeds, followed by pounding them into a fine powder. The powder is kneaded into a dough and then shaped into cylinders. This product is known as guaraná bread, which is grated and then immersed into hot water along with sugar. [10]

This plant was introduced to European colonizers and to Europe in the 16th century by Felip Betendorf, Oviedo, Hernández, Cobo and other Spaniard chroniclers.[ citation needed ] It has since been used, refined, adapted and commercialized by settlers, folklorists, food scientists, and marketers. [11]

Ideal growth conditions

Guarana thrives in warm and humid environments, where annual temperature ranges from 23-28°C, the relative humidity is around 80% and the yearly rainfall reaches 1,500-3000 mm. The crop prefers deep, well-drained soils without stones and can be grown on either inclined or flat terrain. [12]

Cultivation practices

Guarana was domesticated in the forests between the Tapajós River and the lower Madeira river in the Brazilian Amazon. [13] The two dominating production modes are multi-species systems/ agroforestry and intensive monoculture plantation. [14] [15] Agroforestry systems are especially common amongst indigenous people. It was shown, that the soils of guarana agroforestry sytems and their sourrounding forest have both a low natural fertility. Nevertheless, indigenous farmers have developed ways to maintain the average nutrient composition of the soils compared to the adjacent forest which suggests that efficient nutrient cycling is taking place. [16] Additionally, certain traditional agroecosystems produce litter with significantly higher concentrations of macro- and micronutrients compared to the native forest and could therefore be a sustainable method for improving the chemical quality of regions with highly weathered soils. Monoculture Systems on the other hand can be resulting from slash-and-burn forest clearance and involve periodic cleaning and pruning for pest control. [17]

The guarana tree can be propagated sexually via seeds or asexually via cuttings. Seed production is generally not recommended due to the resulting genetic variability which results in plants with different phenotypes and productivity. To maintain the characteristics of the parent plant a propagule only consisting of somatic cells is taken and planted again. This is a way of clonally reproducing the plant which helps to maintain uniformity in the offspring. [18]

In the Alto Urupadi region located in the municipality of Maués (state of Amazonas) guarana harvest starts in September and can last until December. The harvest is executed by hand using scissors and pruning shears (Tesoura), sickles (Terçado), baskets and fibre sacks for transport. The berries are picked individually, if only few are ripe or if possible as an entire fruit bunch. [19] The fructification of the guarana tree is not uniform which is the reason why the guarana harvest is manual and staggered over an extended period of time. This current labor-intensive way of harvesting is very costly which makes it economically less attractive. [20]

Pests and disease details

The Amazonian climate is characterized by high temperatures (annual average of 27.2 °C) and abundant rainfall (approximately 2100 mm per year). This provides favorable conditions for certain pathogens to develop. There are three major pests and diseases impacting cultivation of guarana significantly: Thrips (Pseudophilothrips adisi Zur Strassen), anthracnose (Colletotrichum guaranicola Albuq.), and oversprouting caused by Fusarium decemcellulare Brick. They led to periods of stagnation in guarana production. [21]

Another major constraint in guarana cultivation is weed interference. Weeds are capable to reduce guarana yields up to 65%. This makes effective weed management essential to sustain production. Unfortunately are herbicides often favored over mechanical weed control. This because they offer a more consistent and efficient weed suppression, especially in the hot and humid Amazonian climate. [22] Herbicidesvare often favored based on guarana's high demand for water an nutrients in its reproductive differentiation phase (June-August). Weed competition during this phase reduces formation of reproductive structures and thus can lower the yield drastically. [23]

Nevertheless can inappropriate herbicide use negatively affect the environment guarana is cultivated in. Over-time, extensive herbicide and pesticide use can contribute to soil degradation, increased disease risk, pest resistance and environmental contamination. As a consequence, within the framework of sustainable agriculture, there is a growing interest in safer and environmental friendly alternatives for pest and disease management. [24]

One promising option is the use of Trichoderma spp., a genus of beneficial fungi wildly applied as biological control agent. Trichoderma spp. is naturally present in soil, air and on plant surfaces and capable of suppressing numerous plant pathogens. Trichoderma spp. suppresses these pathogens through mycoparasitism, competition for nutrients and space and induction of systemic resistance in plants. They are most effective against soil-born pathogens (e.g. Fusarium spp.) and some foliar or spike diseases. [25]

The application of Trichoderma-based bioformulations could potentially lower the incidence of Fusariumdecemcellulare, the casual agent of over-sprouting, and other soil-born pathogens in guarana cultivation. Although field trials on guarana remain limited some studies on alternative tropical crops suggest that Trichoderma potentially enhances plant growth, improve stress tolerance and reduces dependence on chemical pesticides. [25]

Composition

Guarana fruits Guarana original do Brasil.jpg
Guaraná fruits
Ripe guarana fruits resemble human eyes. Guarana 02.jpg
Ripe guaraná fruits resemble human eyes.

According to the Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank, guaranine (better known as caffeine) is found in guaraná and is identical to caffeine derived from other sources, like coffee, tea, kola nut, and Ilex. Guaranine, theine, and mateine are all synonyms for caffeine when the definitions of those words include none of the properties and chemicals of their host plants except caffeine. [26]

Natural sources of caffeine contain widely varying mixtures of xanthine alkaloids other than caffeine, including the cardiac stimulants theophylline, theobromine and other substances such as polyphenols, which can form insoluble complexes with caffeine. [27] [28] The main natural phenols found in guaraná are (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin. [29]

The table below contains a partial listing of some of the chemicals found in guaraná seeds, [30] [31] although other parts of the plant also may contain them in varying quantities.

A partial list of the components of guaraná seeds. [30] [31]
Chemical component Parts per million
Adenine
Ash < 14,200
Caffeine 9,100–76,000
Catechutannic-acid
Choline
D-catechin
Fat < 30,000
Guanine
Hypoxanthine
Mucilage
Protein < 98,600
Resin < 70,000
Saponin
Starch 50,000–60,000
Tannin 50,000–120,000
Theobromine 200–400
Theophylline 0–2,500
Timbonine
Xanthine

Current production economics

Properties of guarana seeds make them valuable to several industrial sectors. The world's largest producer for guarana is Brazil at the moment, with most of its production consumed domestically. Around 45% of the total outputs are used by the soft drink and beverage industry. The rest of 55% is processed into syrups, powders and pharmaceutical products [32] [33] The past years demand for health-orientated and functional products has been grown leading to a rapid expansion of the guarana industry in Brazil. Guarana cultivation currently covers around 15'000 hectares primary located in the states of Bahia (around 6'500 ha) and Amazonas (around 8'100 ha). [34] Increasing global demand led ultimately as well to increasing global import and export prices on guarana seeds. In 2023, import and export ranged from $1.88 to $52.64 USD per kg. These prices increased even further in 2024 to a new range of $12.11 to $56 USD per kg. [35] Even tough demand for guarana seeds is globally rising, cultivation within Europe remains negligible. There is little published agronomic research on adapting guarana cultivation to Europe in regards to climate, soil or pest regimes. On top regulatory classification (see: European Medicines Agency, 2014) and low consumer familiarity are limiting spread of guarana as an alternative crop in Europe. Market reports estimate the European guarana market at around $0.69 billion USD in 2023 with a proposed growth to approximately $1.11 billion USD until 2030. [36]

Uses

Guarana seed powder Guarana.jpg
Guaraná seed powder

Safety

In the United States, guaraná fruit powder and seed extract have not been evaluated for the status of "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration, but rather are approved as food additives for flavor (but not non-flavor) uses. [37] [38]

Guaraná is used in sweetened or carbonated soft drinks and energy drinks, an ingredient of herbal teas or contained in dietary supplement capsules. South America obtains much of its caffeine from guaraná. [39]

Beverages

A plastic bottle of Guarana Antarctica Guarana Drink.jpeg
A plastic bottle of Guaraná Antarctica

Brazil, the third-largest consumer of soft drinks in the world, [40] produces several soft drink brands from the seeds of guaraná. [5] [41] A fermented drink is also prepared from guaraná seeds, cassava and water. Paraguay is also a producer of guaraná soft drinks with several brands operating in its market. The word guaraná is widely used in Brazil, Peru and Paraguay as a reference to soft drinks containing guaraná extract.[ citation needed ]

Pop culture references

Guaraná is a key plot device in the Murdoch Mysteries episodes "Excitable Chap" and "From Murdoch to Eternity", in which inventor James Pendrick creates an energy drink from a particularly potent strain of guaraná, which is ultimately plowed under to make way for the Panama Canal.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Johannes L (March 2, 2010). "Can a Caffeine-Packed Plant Give a Boost?". The Wall Street Journal . p. D3.
  2. ↑ Schimpl FC, da Silva JF, Gonçalves JF, et al. (October 2013). "Guarana: Revisiting a highly caffeinated plant from the Amazon" . Journal of Ethnopharmacology . 150 (1): 14–31. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2013.08.023. PMID   23981847. Archived from the original on 2021-03-23. Retrieved 2021-04-19.
  3. ↑ Caporaso N, Whitworth MB, Grebby S, et al. (April 2018). "Non-destructive analysis of sucrose, caffeine and trigonelline on single green coffee beans by hyperspectral imaging". Food Research International (Ottawa, Ont.). 106: 193–203. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2017.12.031. ISSN   0963-9969. PMC   5886291 . PMID   29579918.
  4. ↑ Ashihara H, Sano H, Crozier A (February 2008). "Caffeine and related purine alkaloids: biosynthesis, catabolism, function and genetic engineering". Phytochemistry. 69 (4): 841–56. Bibcode:2008PChem..69..841A. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2007.10.029. PMID   18068204.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Balston C (April 29, 2021). "Guaraná: The edible 'eyes of the Amazon'". BBC Home. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
  6. ↑ Prance G, Nesbitt M, eds. (2004). Cultural History of Plants. New York: Routledge. p. 179.
  7. ↑ "guarana". Merriam Webster. Archived from the original on 2011-09-17. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
  8. ↑ Beck H (2004). "10 Caffeine, Alcohol, and Sweeteners". In Ghillean Prance, Mark Nesbitt (eds.). Cultural History of Plants. New York: Routledge. p. 179. ISBN   978-0-415-92746-8.
  9. ↑ "cupana". Tureng. Archived from the original on May 21, 2025. Retrieved May 21, 2025.
  10. ↑ Weinberg BA, Bealer BK (2001). The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug. New York: Routledge. pp.  259–60. ISBN   978-0-415-92723-9.
  11. ↑ "Guaraná | Seth Garfield". University of North Carolina Press. Retrieved 2024-12-02.
  12. ↑ Pereira JC (2005). Cultura do guaranazeiro no Amazonas (4ª ed.). Manaus: Embrapa Amazônia Ocidental. p. 40.
  13. ↑ Clement CR, De Cristo-Araújo M, Coppens D'Eeckenbrugge G, et al. (2010). "Origin and Domestication of Native Amazonian Crops". Diversity. 2 (1): 72–106. doi: 10.3390/d2010072 .
  14. ↑ Paula E, Cunha J, Campos M, et al. (2024). "Leaf litter nutrient content reveals benefits to traditional cropping systems in the Amazon". International Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 51. doi:10.7764/ijanr.v51i2.2531.
  15. ↑ Silva JF, Coutinho EF, Cravo Md, et al. (2000). Comportamento ecofisiológico de clones de guaraná em dois agrossistemas na Amazônia. Embrapa - Repositório Alice (Relatório técnico (PDF)) (in Brazilian Portuguese). Universidade do Amazonas (UA) & Embrapa Amazônia Ocidental. Retrieved 29 November 2025.
  16. ↑ Vignoli CP, Leeuwen J, Miller RP (2022). "Soil Management in Indigenous Agroforestry Systems of Guarana (Paullinia cupana Kunth) of the Sateré-Mawé Ethnic Group, in the Lower Amazon River Region". Sustainability. 14 (22) 15464. doi: 10.3390/su142215464 – via MDPI.
  17. ↑ De Paula EM, da Cunha JM, Campos MC (2024). "Leaf litter nutrient content reveals benefits to traditional cropping systems in the Amazon". International Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 51 (2): 99–113. doi:10.7764/ijanr.v51i2.2531.
  18. ↑ Nascimento A, Queiroz P, Almeida L (2023). "Guarana propagation strategies: a review". Brazilian Journal of Biology. 83: 1–11. doi:10.1590/1519-6984.275940.
  19. ↑ Santos JC, Costa FS, Nunes Rd, et al. (2024). "Processo de colheita e pós-colheita do guaraná orgânico (Paullinia cupana Kunth) no Alto Urupadi, Maués, Amazonas — Harvest and post‑harvest process of organic guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth) in Alto Urupadi, Maués, Amazonas". Cadernos de Agroecologia (in Brazilian Portuguese). 19 (1). Retrieved 29 November 2025.
  20. ↑ Santos GA, Silva DC, Torres LS (2022). "Metabolites dynamics and fruit production during the guarana harvest". Research, Society and Development. 11 (3): e10911326371. doi:10.33448/rsd‑v11i3.26371.
  21. ↑ Santos C, Santos da Silva BN, Amorim Ferreira E Ferreira AF (2020). "Fungal Endophytic Community Associated with Guarana (Paullinia cupana Var. Sorbilis): Diversity Driver by Genotypes in the Centre of Origin". Journal of Fungi. 6 (3): 123. doi: 10.3390/jof6030123 .
  22. ↑ Jannis M, Gerassimos GP, Benjamin LK, et al. (2020). "Sensor-based mechanical weed control: Present state and prospects". Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 176 105638. doi:10.1016/j.compag.2020.105638.
  23. ↑ Soares D, Albertino S, Souza F, et al. (2019). "Period of Weed Interference in Guarana Crop". Planta Daninha. 37: e019192377.
  24. ↑ Konrad BN, Pinheiro SC, Ferreira CC (2023). "Using Glyphosate on Guarana Seedlings in the Amazon". Molecules. 28 (13): 5193. doi: 10.3390/molecules28135193 .
  25. 1 2 Yao X, Guo H, Zhang K (2023). "Trichoderma and its role in biological control of plant fungal and nematode disease". Frontiers in Microbiology. 14 1160551. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1160551 .
  26. ↑ "Caffeine". Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Archived from the original on 2007-11-24. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
  27. ↑ Balentine D, Harbowy M, Graham H (1998). "Tea: the Plant and its Manufacture; Chemistry and Consumption of the Beverage". In Spiller G (ed.). Caffeine. CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781420050134.ch3 (inactive 12 July 2025). ISBN   978-0-8493-2647-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
  28. ↑ "Substance Name: Caffeine [USP:BAN:JAN]". ChemIDplus. US National Library of Medicine. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
  29. ↑ Carlson M, Thompson RD (July–August 1998). "Liquid chromatographic determination of methylxanthines and catechins in herbal preparations containing guaraná". Journal of AOAC International. 81 (4): 691–701. doi: 10.1093/jaoac/81.4.691 . PMID   9680692.
  30. 1 2 "Guarana", Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases, 2007-09-18, OCLC   41920916, archived from the original on 2004-11-19, retrieved 2007-09-18
  31. 1 2 Duke JA (1992). Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN   978-0-8493-3672-0. OCLC   25874249.
  32. ↑ Teixeira de Azevedo G, Lima de Souza G, Leonarski E (2025). "Valorization of Guarana (Paullinia cupana) Production Chain Waste—A Review of Possible Bioproducts". Resources. 14 (6): 98. doi: 10.3390/resources14060098 .
  33. ↑ Santos C, Santos da Silva BN, Amorim Ferreira E Ferreira AF (2020). "Fungal Endophytic Community Associated with Guarana (Paullinia cupana Var. Sorbilis): Diversity Driver by Genotypes in the Centre of Origin". Journal of Fungi. 6 (3): 123. doi: 10.3390/jof6030123 .
  34. ↑ Santos C, Santos da Silva BN, Amorim Ferreira E Ferreira AF (2020). "Fungal Endophytic Community Associated with Guarana (Paullinia cupana Var. Sorbilis): Diversity Driver by Genotypes in the Centre of Origin". Journal of Fungi. 6 (3): 123. doi: 10.3390/jof6030123 .
  35. ↑ "Global Guarana Seed price". Tridge. Tridge. Retrieved November 27, 2025.
  36. ↑ "Guarana seed (Paulliniae semen) – summary of the scientific conclusions of the Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC)". European Medicines Agency. European Medicines Agency. 16 June 2014. Retrieved November 27, 2025.
  37. ↑ "FDA Responds to Durbin's Energy Drink Letter". Natural Products Insider, Global Health and Nutrition Network. 20 August 2012. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
  38. ↑ "Guarana gum and guarana seed extract; Everything Added to Food in the United States (EAFUS); Documents 2189 and 3150". US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD. 23 April 2013. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
  39. ↑ Weinberg BA, Bealer BK (2001). The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug. New York: Routledge. pp.  230. ISBN   978-0-415-92723-9.
  40. ↑ Weinberg BA, Bealer BK (2001). The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug. New York: Routledge. pp.  192–3. ISBN   978-0-415-92723-9.
  41. ↑ Johnson-Roehr SN (September 29, 2023). "Guaraná: Stimulation from the Amazon to the World". JSTOR Daily. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
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