Alphitobius diaperinus

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Alphitobius diaperinus
Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer, 1797) (32514044020).png
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Infraorder: Cucujiformia
Family: Tenebrionidae
Genus: Alphitobius
Species:
A. diaperinus
Binomial name
Alphitobius diaperinus
Panzer, 1797

Alphitobius diaperinus is a species of beetle in the family Tenebrionidae, the darkling beetles. It is known commonly as the lesser mealworm and the litter beetle. It has a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring nearly worldwide. It is known widely as a pest insect of stored food grain products such as flour, and of poultry-rearing facilities and it is a vector of many kinds of animal pathogens. In larval form, it is an approved novel food in the European Union, [1] and also used as animal feed.

Contents

Description

The adult lesser mealworm beetle is roughly 6 mm long and widely oval in shape. It is shiny black or brown with reddish brown elytra, the color variable among individuals and changing with age. Much of the body surface is dotted with puncture-like impressions. The antennae are paler at the tips and are covered in tiny, yellowish hairs. The elytra have shallow longitudinal grooves. [2]

The eggs are narrow, whitish or tan, and about 1.5 mm long. The larvae somewhat resemble other mealworms, such as the common mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), but are smaller, measuring up to 11 mm long at the final subadult stage. They are tapering and segmented, with three pairs of legs toward the front end, and whitish when newly emerged from the egg and darken to a yellow-brown. They become pale when preparing to molt between instar stages six to 11 instars occur. [2]

Distribution

This species has long been known throughout the world as a common pest, so its origins are uncertain, but it may have originated in Sub-Saharan Africa. It moved into Europe long ago, and was likely introduced to North America from there. [2]

Alphitobius diaperinus in a poultry facility Alphitobius poultry cages.jpg
Alphitobius diaperinus in a poultry facility

Biology

A tropical species, the lesser mealworm thrives in warm, humid environments, both natural and established by humans. It inhabits caves, rodent nests, and the nests of birds, [2] including kites, pigeons, hamerkop, house sparrow, and purple martin. [3] It easily colonizes agricultural establishments with abundant food sources and warm conditions, such as grain processing and storage facilities and poultry housing. [2]

The beetle consumes a wide variety of materials, including litter, bird droppings and bat guano, mold, feathers, eggs, and carrion. [2] It feeds on the eggs and larvae of other insects, such as the rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica). [4] It also engages in cannibalism. It commonly feeds on sick or weakened live animals. [2] When it lives in bird housing it may infest and consume dying birds, especially chicks. It was also once observed inhabiting the scrotum of a rat. [3]

The adult female beetle lays usually about 200 to 400 eggs, but it has been known to produce up to 2000. It lays eggs every few days throughout its life, which is generally up to one year long, or up to two years when it is reared in captivity. It deposits the eggs in litter, droppings, grain stores, or cracks in structures. The larvae emerge within a week and take 40 to 100 days to reach maturity, depending on conditions and the food supply. The larvae grow well in high humidity. They pupate alone in secure spots. They are quite active and mobile and burrow quickly when threatened. Larvae and adults are mainly nocturnal, becoming most active at dusk. [2]

As a pest

Impacts

As a pest, the beetle is most damaging to the poultry industry. This is the most common beetle found in poultry litter. [5] The larvae damage poultry housing structures when they search for suitable pupation spots, chewing through wood, fiberglass, and polystyrene insulation. This destruction can be costly to growers, especially in heating energy costs. [2] The beetles consume the birds' feed and irritate the birds by biting them. [6]

Other insect residents of poultry housing include the housefly (Musca domestica) and its predator, Carcinops pumilio , a clown beetle. The fly is a pest which can sometimes be kept under control by the beetle. The lesser mealworm interferes with this ecology by reducing the survival of clown beetle eggs and larvae. [2]

The lesser mealworm beetle is a vector of many pathogens. It spreads more than 30 bird diseases. [7] It transmits animal viruses such as rotavirus, [8] the turkey coronavirus, the chicken viruses that cause Marek's disease and infectious bursal disease, and the viruses that cause Newcastle disease, avian influenza, [2] and fowlpox. [9] It transmits bacteria such as Campylobacter jejuni , [10] Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Escherichia coli , and Staphylococcus species. [2] A single exposure of a chick to a contaminated beetle can result in bacterial colonization of the bird's gut. [11] Chicks are more likely to be infected by eating larvae than adult beetles. [12] The beetle can also transmit Aspergillus fungi. It is a vector for Eimeria , protozoa that cause coccidiosis in birds. [2] It carries fowl tapeworms such as Choanotaenia infundibulum and the nematodes Subulura brumpti and Hadjelia truncata . [13]

Poultry have difficulty digesting the beetle and larva, and if they eat them, they can experience intestinal obstruction and gut lesions. [2] Broiler chickens and turkey poults have slower weight gain when they feed on the beetle. [10]

Like other darkling beetles, this species produces defensive benzoquinone compounds that can be irritating to humans, causing asthma, headaches, rhinitis, conjunctivitis, corneal ulcers, and dermatitis with erythema and papules. The benzoquinones may be carcinogenic. [2]

Before the beetle became problematic in poultry, it was better known as a pest of stored goods, including wheat, barley, rice, oatmeal, soybeans, cowpeas, peanuts, linseed, cottonseed, tobacco, [2] and dried meat. [14]

This beetle can become a household pest if it ends up near human habitation in old litter to be used as compost. It emerges when it is attracted to light from homes. [10]

Management

No agents of biological pest control are used against the lesser mealworm. The fungus Beauveria bassiana is an arthropod pathogen that may prove useful. Some protozoa and spider species are known natural predators. [2]

Control is usually attempted with carbaryl insecticide in the form of powder, liquid, and bait. Thiamethoxam and 9-Tricosene used in conjunction have been shown to be successful in poultry houses. Pyrethroids and boric acid are used. True outbreaks are often uncontrollable and some populations of the beetle have shown resistance to various compounds. [2] Resistance is more common on farms that have been chemically treated for many years. [10] Insecticides are not ideal because they contaminate the poultry and they are not effective on the pest when it burrows out of reach. [15]

Proper maintenance of poultry housing usually keeps the beetle under control, as it propagates in accumulated litter and droppings. [2]

Use

As feed

The larvae of the litter beetle, like certain other larvae of darkling beetles such as mealworms, are used as animal feed, e.g., fed to captive reptiles. [16] [17] [18] They have been reported as a good first food for Central American wood turtle (Rhinoclemmys pulcherrima mannii) hatchlings, because they are more active than common mealworms and their movement stimulates feeding behavior. [19]

As food

Freeze-dried larvae of Alphitobius diaperinus (marketed as buffalo worms) as food, or food ingredient Buffalowurmer als Lebensmittel.jpg
Freeze-dried larvae of Alphitobius diaperinus (marketed as buffalo worms) as food, or food ingredient

The larvae are edible insects and also farmed for human consumption by specialized European insect farms, mostly in the Netherlands and Belgium. The larvae are either sold freeze-dried for consumption, or processed into food such as burger patties, [20] pasta, [21] or snack bars. [22] As food, the larvae are commonly marketed under the term buffalo worms, a name that is also used for the larvae of Alphitobius laevigatus which can lead to confusion. [23] The species can be detected using the PCR method. [23]

On 4 July 2022, EFSA published an opinion confirming the safety of frozen and freeze-dried larvae of Alphitobius diaperinus for human consumption. [24] Approval as novel food in the European Union followed on 6 January 2023 with the EU commission's publication of Implementing Regulation 2023/58 authorising the placing on the market of the frozen, paste, dried and powder forms of Alphitobius diaperinus larvae. [1]

In preparation

Along with Dermestes beetles, species of this genus are used in museums to clean tissues off carcasses during the preparation of zoological specimens. [2]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beetle</span> Order of insects

Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera, in the superorder Holometabola. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 described species, is the largest of all orders, constituting almost 40% of described insects and 25% of all known animal species; new species are discovered frequently, with estimates suggesting that there are between 0.9 and 2.1 million total species. Found in almost every habitat except the sea and the polar regions, they interact with their ecosystems in several ways: beetles often feed on plants and fungi, break down animal and plant debris, and eat other invertebrates. Some species are serious agricultural pests, such as the Colorado potato beetle, while others such as Coccinellidae eat aphids, scale insects, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops. Some others also have unique characteristics, such as the common eastern firefly, which uses a light-emitting organ for mating and communication purposes

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common asparagus beetle</span> Species of beetle

The common asparagus beetle is an important pest of asparagus crops both in Europe and in North America. Asparagus is its only food plant. The beetle is 6.0 mm to 9.5 mm long and slightly elongated. It is metallic blue-black in color with cream or yellow spots on its red-bordered elytra. The larvae are fat gray grubs with dark heads.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Click beetle</span> Family of beetles

Elateridae or click beetles are a family of beetles. Other names include elaters, snapping beetles, spring beetles or skipjacks. This family was defined by William Elford Leach (1790–1836) in 1815. They are a cosmopolitan beetle family characterized by the unusual click mechanism they possess. There are a few other families of Elateroidea in which a few members have the same mechanism, but most elaterid subfamilies can click. A spine on the prosternum can be snapped into a corresponding notch on the mesosternum, producing a violent "click" that can bounce the beetle into the air. Clicking is mainly used to avoid predation, although it is also useful when the beetle is on its back and needs to right itself. There are about 9300 known species worldwide, and 965 valid species in North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mealworm</span> Species of darkling beetle, larval form

Mealworms are the larval form of the yellow mealworm beetle, Tenebrio molitor, a species of darkling beetle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Darkling beetle</span> Family of beetles

Darkling beetle is the common name for members of the beetle family Tenebrionidae, comprising over 20,000 species in a cosmopolitan distribution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Histeridae</span> Family of beetles

Histeridae is a family of beetles commonly known as clown beetles or hister beetles. This very diverse group of beetles contains 3,900 species found worldwide. They can be easily identified by their shortened elytra that leaves two of the seven tergites exposed, and their geniculate (elbowed) antennae with clubbed ends. These predatory feeders are most active at night and will fake death if they feel threatened. This family of beetles will occupy almost any kind of niche throughout the world. Hister beetles have proved useful during forensic investigations to help in time of death estimation. Also, certain species are used in the control of livestock pests that infest dung and to control houseflies. Because they are predacious and will even eat other hister beetles, they must be isolated when collected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dermestidae</span> Family of beetles

Dermestidae are a family of Coleoptera that are commonly referred to as skin beetles. Other common names include larder beetle, hide or leather beetles, carpet beetles, and khapra beetles. There are over 1,800 species described.

<i>Zophobas morio</i> Species of beetle

Zophobas morio is a species of darkling beetle, whose larvae are known by the common name superworm, kingworm, morio worm or simply Zophobas. Superworms are common in the reptile pet industry as food, along with giant mealworms, which are Tenebrio molitor larvae sprayed with juvenile hormone.

<i>Tenebrio obscurus</i> Species of beetle

Tenebrio obscurus, or the dark mealworm beetle, is a species of darkling beetle whose larvae are known as mini mealworms. These insects should not be confused with younger mealworms or with the confused flour beetle.

<i>Zophobas</i> Genus of beetles

Zophobas is a genus of beetles in the family Tenebrionidae, the darkling beetles. They occur in the Americas, from the Neotropics into southernmost United States. In Cuba beetles of this genus are known as blind click-beetles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Confused flour beetle</span> Species of beetle

The confused flour beetle, a type of darkling beetle known as a flour beetle, is a globally found, common pest insect known for attacking and infesting stored flour and grain. They are one of the most common and most destructive insect pests for grain and other food products stored in silos, warehouses, grocery stores, and homes. They engage in cannibalistic behaviors for population control and nutritional benefits. Tribolium confusum practices kin selection to improve individual fitness. Multiple chemicals have been used to manage their infestation, including pyrethin and fungal insecticides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tenebrioninae</span> Subfamily of beetles

Tenebrioninae is the largest subfamily of the darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae), containing flour beetles, among others. Tenebrioninae contains more than 20 tribes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insect farming</span> Raising and breeding insects as livestock

Insect farming is the practice of raising and breeding insects as livestock, also referred to as minilivestock or micro stock. Insects may be farmed for the commodities they produce, or for them themselves; to be used as food, as feed, as a dye, and otherwise.

<i>Typhaea stercorea</i> Species of beetle

Typhaea stercorea is a cosmopolitan species of beetle of the family Mycetophagidae, known by the common name hairy fungus beetle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bean leaf beetle</span> Species of beetle

Cerotoma trifurcata is a species of beetle in the Chrysomelidae family that can be found in the Eastern and West United States.

Acarophenacidae is a family of mites in the order Trombidiformes that are egg parasitoids and ectoparasites of beetles or thrips. It contains eight genera and around 40 species.

<i>Tribolium</i> (beetle) Genus of beetles

Tribolium is a genus of flour beetles in the family Tenebrionidae. They are known by various common names including flour beetles, flour weevils, red weevils and bran bugs.

<i>Dermestes ater</i> Species of beetle

Dermestes ater is a species of beetle in the family Dermestidae, the skin beetles. It is known commonly as the black larder beetle or incinerator beetle. It is native to North America, but today it is found nearly worldwide. Like several other dermestid beetles, this species is a common pest of stored products.

<i>Alphitobius laevigatus</i> Species of beetle

Alphitobius laevigatus, the black fungus beetle, is a species of darkling beetle in the family Tenebrionidae. It is found in Europe and North America.

<i>Alphitobius</i> Genus of beetles

Alphitobius is a genus of darkling beetles in the family Tenebrionidae. There are about 18 described species in Alphitobius.

References

  1. 1 2 EU Commission (6 January 2023): Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2023/58 of 5 January 2023 authorising the placing on the market of the frozen, paste, dried and powder forms of Alphitobius diaperinus larvae (lesser mealworm) as a novel food and amending Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470 .
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Dunford, J. C. and P. E. Kaufman. Lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus. Entomology and Nematology. University of Florida, IFAS. 2006.
  3. 1 2 Crook, P. G., et al. (1980). The lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus, in the scrotum of Rattus norvegicus, with notes on other vertebrate associations (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae; Rodentia, Muridae). The Coleopterists Bulletin 393-96.
  4. ↑ Dass, R., et al. (1984). Feeding potential and biology of lesser meal worm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panz.) (Col., Tenebrionidae), preying on Corcyra cephalonica St. (Lep., Pyralidae). Zeitschrift für Angewandte Entomologie 98(1‐5), 444-47.
  5. ↑ Dinev, I. (2013). The darkling beetle (Alphitobius diaperinus) - A health hazard for broiler chicken production. Trakia Journal of Sciences 11(1), 1-4.
  6. ↑ Kozaki, T., et al. (2008). Comparison of two acetylcholinesterase gene cDNAs of the lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus, in insecticide susceptible and resistant strains. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 67(3), 130-38.
  7. ↑ Arunraj, C., et al. (2013). Lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer, 1797) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) menace in poultry farms in south India. Journal of Biopesticides 6(1), 84-86.
  8. ↑ Despins, J. L., et al. (1994). Transmission of enteric pathogens of turkeys by darkling beetle larva (Alphitobius diaperinus). [ permanent dead link ]The Journal of Applied Poultry Research 3(1) 61-65.
  9. ↑ Watson, D. W., et al. (2000). Limited transmission of turkey coronavirus in young turkeys by adult Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 37(3), 480-83.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Steelman, C. D. (2008). Comparative susceptibility of adult and larval lesser mealworms, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), collected from broiler houses in Arkansas to selected insecticides. Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 25(2), 111-25.
  11. ↑ Hazeleger, W. C., et al. (2008). Darkling beetles (Alphitobius diaperinus) and their larvae as potential vectors for the transfer of Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi B variant Java between successive broiler flocks. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74(22), 6887-91.
  12. ↑ Leffer, A. M., et al. (2010). Vectorial competence of larvae and adults of Alphitobius diaperinus in the transmission of Salmonella Enteritidis in poultry. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 10(5), 481-87.
  13. ↑ Alborzi, A. R. and A. Rahbar. (2012). Introducing Alphitobius diaperinus, (Insecta: Tenebrionidae) as a new intermediate host of Hadjelia truncata (Nematoda). [ permanent dead link ]Iranian J Parasitol 7(2), 92-98.
  14. ↑ Tomberlin, J. K., et al. (2008). Susceptibility of Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) from broiler facilities in Texas to four insecticides. Archived 2014-08-10 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Economic Entomology 101(2), 480-83.
  15. ↑ Rezende, S. R. F., et al. (2009). Control of the Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) with entomopathogenic fungi. Revista Brasileira de Ciência Avícola 11(2), 121-27.
  16. ↑ Żuk-Gołaszewska, Krystyna; Gałęcki, Remigiusz; Obremski, Kazimierz; Smetana, Sergiy; Figiel, Szczepan; Gołaszewski, Janusz (2022-05-07). "Edible Insect Farming in the Context of the EU Regulations and Marketing—An Overview". Insects. 13 (5): 446. doi: 10.3390/insects13050446 . ISSN   2075-4450. PMC   9147295 . PMID   35621781.
  17. ↑ Lähteenmäki-Uutela, A.; Marimuthu, S. B.; Meijer, N. (2021-08-13). "Regulations on insects as food and feed: a global comparison". Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 7 (5): 849–856. doi:10.3920/JIFF2020.0066.
  18. ↑ Mulder, Patrick P.J.; Mueller-Maatsch, Judith T.L.; Meijer, Nathan; Bosch, Marlou; Zoet, Lisa; Van Der Fels-Klerx, H.J. (2024-02-29). "Effects of dietary exposure to plant toxins on bioaccumulation, survival, and growth of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae and lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus)". Heliyon. 10 (4): e26523. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26523 . ISSN   2405-8440. PMC   10884485 . PMID   38404897.
  19. ↑ Webb, M. R. Care & Breeding of the Central American Wood Turtle, Rhinoclemmys pulcherimma manni. Tortoise Trust. 2010.
  20. ↑ Food Navigator (2018-10-12): Article on the insect burger by German start-up Bugfoundation .
  21. ↑ Yumda.com (2018-03-05): For the first time: Foodstuffs containing insect proteins on the market .
  22. ↑ Nutraingredients.com (2018-09-21): Danish insect-statup targets holistic nutrition with mineral-dense buffalo worm bar .
  23. 1 2 Aline Marien, Hamza Sedefoglu, Frédéric Debode et al. (9 March 2022): Detection of Alphitobius diaperinus by Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction With a Single-Copy Gene Target. In: Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 2022; 9: 718806. doi:10.3389/fvets.2022.718806.
  24. ↑ EFSA (4 July 2022): Safety of frozen and freeze‐dried formulations of the lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus larva) as a Novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 . In: EFSA Journal 2022;20(7):7325. doi: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7325

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