Cowpea

Last updated

Contents

Cowpea
Lobia.jpg
Cowpeas
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Genus: Vigna
Species:
V. unguiculata
Binomial name
Vigna unguiculata
Synonyms [1] [2] [3]
List
  • Dolichos biflorus L.
  • Dolichos catiang L.
  • Dolichos catjang Burm.f. nom. illeg.
  • Dolichos catjang L.
  • Dolichos hastifolius Schnizl.
  • Dolichos lubia Forssk.
  • Dolichos melanophthalamus DC.
  • Dolichos monachalis Brot.
  • Dolichos obliquifolius Schnizl.
  • Dolichos sesquipedalis L.
  • Dolichos sinensis Forssk. nom. illeg.
  • Dolichos sinensis L.
  • Dolichos sphaerospermus (L.) DC.
  • Dolichos tranquebaricus Jacq.
  • Dolichos unguiculata L.
  • Dolichos unguiculatus Thunb.
  • Liebrechtsia scabra De Wild.
  • Phaseolus cylindricus L.
  • Phaseolus sphaerospermus L.
  • Phaseolus unguiculatus (L.) Piper
  • Scytalis hispida E.Mey.
  • Scytalis protracta E.Mey.
  • Scytalis tenuis E.Mey.
  • Vigna alba (G.Don) Baker f.
  • Vigna angustifoliolata Verdc.
  • Vigna baoulensis A.Chev.
  • Vigna catjang (Burm.f.) Walp.
  • Vigna coerulea Baker
  • Vigna dekindtiana Harms
  • Vigna hispida (E.Mey.) Walp.
  • Vigna huillensis Baker
  • Vigna malosana Baker
  • Vigna protracta (E.Mey.) Walp.
  • Vigna pubescens R.Wilczek
  • Vigna rhomboidea Burtt Davy
  • Vigna scabra (De Wild.) T.Durand & H.Durand
  • Vigna scabrida Burtt Davy
  • Vigna sesquipedalis (L.) F. Agcaoili nom. illeg.
  • Vigna sesquipedalis (L.) Fruwirth
  • Vigna sinensis (L.) Endl. ex Hassk. nom. illeg.
  • Vigna sinensis (L.) Savi ex Hausskn.
  • Vigna tenuis (E.Mey.) F.Dietr.
  • Vigna triloba var. stenophylla Harv.

The cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is an annual herbaceous legume from the genus Vigna . Its tolerance for sandy soil and low rainfall have made it an important crop in the semiarid regions across Africa and Asia. It requires very few inputs, as the plant's root nodules are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen, making it a valuable crop for resource-poor farmers and well-suited to intercropping with other crops. The whole plant is used as forage for animals, with its use as cattle feed likely responsible for its name.

Four subspecies of cowpeas are recognised, of which three are cultivated. A high level of morphological diversity is found within the species with large variations in the size, shape, and structure of the plant. Cowpeas can be erect, semierect (trailing), or climbing. The crop is mainly grown for its seeds, which are high in protein, although the leaves and immature seed pods can also be consumed.

Cowpeas were domesticated in Africa [4] and are one of the oldest crops to be farmed. A second domestication event probably occurred in Asia, before they spread into Europe and the Americas. The seeds are usually cooked and made into stews and curries, or ground into flour or paste.

Most cowpeas are grown on the African continent, particularly in Nigeria and Niger, which account for 66% of world production. A 1997 estimate suggests that cowpeas are cultivated on 12.5 million hectares (31 million acres) of land, have a worldwide production of 3 million tonnes and are consumed by 200 million people on a daily basis. [5] Insect infestation is a major constraint to the production of cowpea, sometimes causing over 90% loss in yield. [6] The legume pod borer Maruca vitrata is the main preharvest pest of the cowpea and the cowpea weevil Callosobruchus maculatus the main postharvest pest.

Taxonomy and etymology

Black-eyed peas, a common name for a cowpea cultivar, are named due to the presence of a distinctive black spot on their hilum. BlackEyedPeas.JPG
Black-eyed peas, a common name for a cowpea cultivar, are named due to the presence of a distinctive black spot on their hilum.

Vigna unguiculata is a member of the Vigna (peas and beans) genus. Unguiculata is Latin for "with a small claw", which reflects the small stalks on the flower petals. [7] Common names for cultivated cowpeas include black-eye pea, [8] southern pea, [9] niebe [10] (alternatively ñebbe), [11] and crowder pea. [12] All cultivated cowpeas are found within the universally accepted V. unguiculata subspecies unguiculata classification, which is then commonly divided into four cultivar groups: unguiculata, biflora, sesquipedalis, and textilis. [13] [14] The classification of the wild relatives within V. unguiculata is more complicated, with over 20 different names having been used and between 3 and 10 subgroups described. [13] [15] The original subgroups of stenophylla, dekindtiana, and tenuis appear to be common in all taxonomic treatments, while the variations pubescens and protractor were raised to subspecies level by a 1993 characterisation. [13] [16]

Sea Island red pea a cultivar of cowpea grown by the Gullah people on the Sea islands. Sea Island red peas.jpg
Sea Island red pea a cultivar of cowpea grown by the Gullah people on the Sea islands.

The first written reference of the word 'cowpea' appeared in 1798 in the United States. [7] The name was most likely acquired due to their use as a fodder crop for cows. [17] Black-eyed pea, a common name used for the unguiculata cultivar group, describes the presence of a distinctive black spot at the hilum of the seed. Black-eyed peas were first introduced to the southern states in the United States and some early varieties had peas squashed closely together in their pods, leading to the other common names of southern pea and crowder pea. [7]

The sesquipedalis subspecies arrived in the United States via Asia. It is characterised by unusually long pods, leading to the Latin name (sesquipedalis means "foot and a half long") and the common names of yardlong bean, asparagus bean, and Chinese long-bean. [18]

A selection of different cowpea cultivars displayed in a wooden bowl. Vigna unguiculata varieties.jpg
A selection of different cowpea cultivars displayed in a wooden bowl.
Common names of Vigna unguiculataunguiculata cultivar groups

Group

Common name

Unguiculata black-eyed pea, crowder-pea, southern pea, niebe, ñebbe
Biflora catjang, sow-pea
Sesquipedalis yardlong bean, asparagus bean, Chinese long-bean
Textiliswild cowpea, African cowpea, Ethiopian cowpea

Description

A large morphological diversity is found within the crop, and the growth conditions and grower preferences for each variety vary from region to region. [13] However, as the plant is primarily self-pollinating, its genetic diversity within varieties is relatively low. [19] Cowpeas can either be short and bushy (as short as 20 cm or 8 in) or act like a vine by climbing supports or trailing along the ground (to a height of 2 m or 6 ft 7 in). [20] [21] The taproot can penetrate to a depth of 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) after eight weeks. [22]

The size and shape of the leaves vary greatly, making this an important feature for classifying and distinguishing cowpea varieties. [23] Another distinguishing feature of cowpeas is the long 20–50 cm (8–20 in) peduncles, which hold the flowers and seed pods. One peduncle can support four or more seed pods. [22] Flower colour varies through different shades of purple, pink, yellow, and white and blue. [21]

Seeds and seed pods from wild cowpeas are very small, [22] while cultivated varieties can have pods between 10 and 110 cm (4 and 43 in) long. [24] A pod can contain six to 13 seeds that are usually kidney-shaped, although the seeds become more spherical the more restricted they are within the pod. [20] [22] Their texture and colour are very diverse. They can have a smooth or rough coat and be speckled, mottled, or blotchy. Colours include white, cream, green, red, brown, and black, or various combinations. [22]

History

The cowpea was believed to have originated in West Africa. West-Africa.svg
The cowpea was believed to have originated in West Africa.

Compared to most other important crops, little is known about the domestication, dispersal, and cultivation history of the cowpea. [25] Although there is no archaeological evidence for early cowpea cultivation, the centre of diversity of the cultivated cowpea is West Africa, leading an early consensus that this is the likely centre of origin and place of early domestication. [26] New research using molecular markers has suggested that domestication may have instead occurred in East Africa and currently both theories carry equal weight. [25]

While the date of cultivation began may be uncertain, it is still considered one of the oldest domesticated crops. [27] Remains of charred cowpeas from rock shelters in Central Ghana have been dated to the 2nd millennium BC. [28] In 2300 BC, the cowpea is believed to have made its way into Southeast Asia, where secondary domestication events may have occurred. [14] From there they traveled north to the Mediterranean, where they were used by the Greeks and Romans. [29] The first written references to the cowpea were in 300 BC and they probably reached Central and North America during the slave trade through the 17th to early 19th centuries. [14] [26]

Cultivation

A cowpea plant with some pods ready for harvest Black-eyed pea pods on plant in Hong Kong.jpg
A cowpea plant with some pods ready for harvest

Cowpeas thrive in poor dry conditions, growing well in soils up to 85% sand. [30] This makes them a particularly important crop in arid, semidesert regions where not many other crops will grow. As well as an important source of food for humans in poor, arid regions, the crop can also be used as feed for livestock. [31] Its nitrogen-fixing ability means that as well as functioning as a sole crop, the cowpea can be effectively intercropped with sorghum, millet, maize, cassava, or cotton. [32]

Seeds from the wild-type cowpea are much smaller than the cultivated varieties Wild and cultivated cowpea (7856427546).jpg
Seeds from the wild-type cowpea are much smaller than the cultivated varieties

The optimum temperature for cowpea growth is 30 °C (86 °F), making it only available as a summer crop for most of the world. It grows best in regions with an annual rainfall between 400 and 700 mm (16 and 28 in). The ideal soils are sandy and it has better tolerance for infertile and acid soil than most other crops. Generally, 133,000 seeds are planted per hectare (54,000/acre) for the erect varieties and 60,000 per hectare (24,000/acre) for the climbing and trailing varieties. The seeds can be harvested after about 100 days or the whole plant used as forage after about 120 days. Leaves can be picked from 4 weeks after planting. [33]

These characteristics, along with its low fertilisation requirements, make the cowpea an ideal crop for resource-poor farmers living in the Sahel region of West Africa. Early-maturing varieties of the crop can thrive in the semiarid climate, where rainfall is often less than 500 mm (20 in). The timing of planting is crucial, as the plant must mature during the seasonal rains. [34] The crop is mostly intercropped with pearl millet, and plants are selected that provide both food and fodder value instead of the more specialised varieties. [35]

Storage of the seeds can be problematic in Africa due to potential infestation by postharvest pests. Traditional methods of protecting stored grain include using the insecticidal properties of Neem extracts, mixing the grain with ash or sand, using vegetable oils, combining ash and oil into a soap solution or treating the cowpea pods with smoke or heat. [36] More modern methods include storage in airtight containers, using gamma irradiation, or heating or freezing the seeds. [37] Temperatures of 60 °C (140 °F) kill the weevil larvae, leading to a recent push to develop cheap forms of solar heating that can be used to treat stored grain. [38] One of the more recent developments is the use a cheap, reusable double-bagging system (called PICs) that asphyxiates the cowpea weevils. [39]

Pests and diseases

Larva from the Maruca vitrata, commonly called the maruca pod borer, is one of the most damaging insect pests to the cowpea plant. Maruca vitrata (Crambidae Pyraustinae).jpg
Larva from the Maruca vitrata , commonly called the maruca pod borer, is one of the most damaging insect pests to the cowpea plant.

Insects are a major factor in the low yields of African cowpea crops, and they affect each tissue component and developmental stage of the plant. In bad infestations, insect pressure is responsible for over 90% loss in yield. [6] The legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata, is the main preharvest pest of the cowpea. [40] Other important pests include pod sucking bugs, thrips, aphids, cowpea curculios and post-harvest beetles Callosobruchus maculatus and Callosobruchus chinensis . [6] [41] [42] [43] [44]

M. vitrata causes the most damage to the growing cowpea due to their large host range and cosmopolitan distribution. [45] It causes damage to the flower buds, flowers, and pods of the plant, with infestations resulting in a 20–88% loss of yield. [45] While the insect can cause damage through all growth stages, most of the damage occurs during flowering. [45] Biological control has had limited success, so most preventive methods rely on the use of agrichemicals. Genetically modified cowpeas has been developed to express the cry protein from Bacillus thuringiensis , which is toxic to lepidopteran species including the maruca. [46] BT Cowpea was commercialised in Nigeria in 2019. [47]

Cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus) infests stored cowpea seeds, resulting in major postharvest losses. CSIRO ScienceImage 489 Cowpea bean varieties infested with weevils.jpg
Cowpea weevil ( Callosobruchus maculatus ) infests stored cowpea seeds, resulting in major postharvest losses.

Severe C. maculatus infestations can affect 100% of the stored peas and cause up to 60% loss within a few months. [48] [49] The weevil generally enters the cowpea pod through holes before harvest and lays eggs on the dry seed. [50] The larvae burrow their way into the seed, feeding on the endosperm. The weevil develops into a sexually mature adult within the seed. [51] An individual bruchid can lay 20–40 eggs, and in optimal conditions, each egg can develop into a reproductively active adult in 3 weeks. [52] The most common methods of protection involve the use of insecticides, the main pesticides used being carbamates, synthetic pyrethroids, and organophosphates. [53]

Cowpea is susceptible to nematode, fungal, bacterial, and virus diseases, which can result in substantial loss in yield. [54] Common diseases include blights, root rot, wilt, powdery mildew, root knot, rust and leaf spot. [55] The plant is susceptible to mosaic viruses, which cause a green mosaic pattern to appear in the leaves. [55] The cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV), discovered in 1959, has become a useful research tool. [56] CPMV is stable and easy to propagate to a high yield, making it useful in vector development and protein expression systems. [56] One of the plant's defenses against some insect attacks is the cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI). [57] CpTI has been transgenically inserted into other crops as a pest deterrent. [58] CpTI is the only gene obtained outside of B. thuringiensis that has been inserted into a commercially available genetically modified crop. [59]

Besides biotic stresses, cowpea also faces various challenges in different parts of the world such as drought, heat, and cold. [60] Drought lowers the growth rate and development, ultimately reducing yield, although cowpea is considered more drought tolerant than most other crops. [61] Drought at the preflowering stage in cowpea can reduce the yield potential by 360 kg/ha. [62] Crop wild relatives are the prominent source of genetic material, which can be tapped to improve biotic/abiotic tolerance in crops. [63] International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria and Institut de l’Environment et de Recherches Agricoles are looking to tap into the genetic diversity of wild cowpeas and transfer that into cultivars to make them more tolerant to different stresses and adaptive to climate change. [64]

Culinary use

Hoppin' John is a common meal in the rural Southern United States. Hoppin-john-bowl.JPG
Hoppin' John is a common meal in the rural Southern United States.

Cowpeas are grown mostly for their edible beans, although the leaves, green seeds and pods can also be consumed, meaning the cowpea can be used as a food source before the dried peas are harvested. [65] Like other legumes, cowpeas are cooked to make them edible, usually by boiling. [66] Cowpeas can be prepared in stews, soups, purees, casseroles and curries. [67] [68] They can also be processed into a paste or flour. [69] Chinese long beans can be eaten raw or cooked, but as they easily become waterlogged are usually sautéed, stir-fried, or deep-fried. [70]

A common snack in Africa is koki or moin-moin, where the cowpeas are mashed into a paste, mixed with spices and steamed in banana leaves. [71] They also use the cowpea paste as a supplement in infant formula when weaning babies off milk. [72] Slaves brought to America and the West Indies cooked cowpeas much the same way as they did in Africa, although many people in the American South considered cowpeas not suitable for human consumption. [73] A popular dish was Hoppin' John, which contained black-eyed peas cooked with rice and seasoned with pork. Over time, cowpeas became more universally accepted and now Hoppin' John is seen as a traditional Southern dish ritually served on New Year's Day. [74]

Nutrition and health

Cowpea (raw seeds)
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 336 kcal (1,410 kJ)
60.03 g
Sugars 6.9 g
Dietary fiber 10.6 g
Fat
1.26 g
23.52 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
0%
3 μg
Thiamine (B1)
71%
0.853 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
17%
0.226 mg
Niacin (B3)
13%
2.075 mg
Vitamin B6
21%
0.357 mg
Folate (B9)
158%
633 μg
Vitamin C
2%
1.5 mg
Vitamin K
4%
5 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
8%
110 mg
Iron
46%
8.27 mg
Magnesium
44%
184 mg
Phosphorus
34%
424 mg
Potassium
37%
1112 mg
Sodium
1%
16 mg
Zinc
31%
3.37 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water11.95 g
Link to USDA Database entry [ dead link ]
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [75] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [76]

Cowpea seeds provide a rich source of proteins and food energy, as well as minerals and vitamins. [69] This complements the mainly cereal diet in countries that grow cowpeas as a major food crop. [77] A seed can consist of 25% protein and has very low fat content. [78] Cowpea starch is digested more slowly than the starch from cereals, which is more beneficial to human health. [69] The grain is a rich source of folic acid, an important vitamin that helps prevent neural tube defects in unborn babies. [79]

The cowpea has often been referred to as "poor man's meat" due to the high levels of protein found in the seeds and leaves. [66] However, it does contain some antinutritional elements, notable phytic acid and protease inhibitors, which reduce the nutritional value of the crop. [69] Methods such as fermentation, soaking, germination, debranning, and autoclaving are used to combat the antinutritional properties of the cowpea by increasing the bioavailability of nutrients within the crop. [80] Although little research has been conducted on the nutritional value of the leaves and immature pods, what is available suggests that the leaves have a similar nutritional value to black nightshade and sweet potato leaves, while the green pods have less antinutritional factors than the dried seeds. [69]

Production and consumption

Cow peas, dry production, 2020 [81]
CountryWeight (tonnes)
Flag of Nigeria.svg  Nigeria 3,647,115
Flag of Niger.svg  Niger 2,637,486
Flag of Burkina Faso.svg  Burkina Faso 666,023
Flag of Kenya.svg  Kenya 264,160
Flag of Senegal.svg  Senegal 253,897
All others1,447,422
World8,916,103

Most cowpeas are grown on the African continent, particularly in Nigeria and Niger, which account for 66% of world cowpea production. [82] The Sahel region also contains other major producers such as Burkina Faso, Ghana, Senegal, and Mali. Niger is the main exporter of cowpeas and Nigeria the main importer. Exact figures for cowpea production are hard to come up with as it is not a major export crop. Estimating world cowpea production is rather difficult, as it is usually grown in a mixture with other crops, but according to a 1997 estimate, cowpeas were cultivated on 12.5 million hectares (31 million acres) and had a worldwide production of 3 million metric tons (3,000,000 long tons; 3,300,000 short tons). [5] While they play a key role in subsistence farming and livestock fodder, the cowpea is also seen as a major cash crop by Central and West African farmers, with an estimated 200 million people consuming cowpea on a daily basis. [83]

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, as of 2012, the average cowpea yield in Western Africa was an estimated 483 kilograms per hectare (431 lb/acre), [82] which is still 50% below the estimated potential production yield. [84] In some tradition cropping methods, the yield can be as low as 100 kilograms per hectare (89 lb/acre). [21]

Outside Africa, the major production areas are Asia, Central America, and South America. Brazil is the world's second-leading producer of cowpea seed, accounting for 17% of annual cowpea production, although most is consumed within the country. [4]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bean</span> Seed of one of several genera of the plant family Fabaceae

A bean is the seed of several plants in the family Fabaceae, which are used as vegetables for human or animal food. They can be cooked in many different ways, including boiling, frying, and baking, and are used in many traditional dishes throughout the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pea</span> Species of flowering plant with edible seeds in the family Fabaceae

Pea is a pulse, vegetable or fodder crop, but the word often refers to the seed or sometimes the pod of this flowering plant species, formerly 'Pisum sativum', it has been proposed to rename the species as Lathyrus oleraceus. Each pod contains several seeds (peas), which can have green or yellow cotyledons when mature. Botanically, pea pods are fruit, since they contain seeds and develop from the ovary of a (pea) flower. The name is also used to describe other edible seeds from the Fabaceae such as the pigeon pea, the cowpea, the seeds from several species of Lathyrus and is used as a compound form for example Sturt's desert pea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Legume</span> Plant in the family Fabaceae

Legumes are plants in the family Fabaceae, or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as a dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called pulses. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption; for livestock forage and silage; and as soil-enhancing green manure. Well-known legumes include beans, soybeans, chickpeas, peanuts, lentils, lupins, grass peas, mesquite, carob, tamarind, alfalfa, and clover. Legumes produce a botanically unique type of fruit – a simple dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel and usually dehisces on two sides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-eyed pea</span> Subspecies of cowpea plant

The black-eyed pea or black-eyed bean is a legume grown around the world for its medium-sized, edible bean. It is a subspecies of the cowpea, an Old World plant domesticated in Africa, and is sometimes simply called a cowpea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mung bean</span> Species of plant

The mung bean, alternatively known as green gram, mungo bean or mongo bean, is a plant species in the legume family. The mung bean is mainly cultivated in East, Southeast and South Asia. It is used as an ingredient in both savoury and sweet dishes.

<i>Vigna</i> Genus of plants

Vigna is a genus of plants in the legume family, Fabaceae, with a pantropical distribution. It includes some well-known cultivated species, including many types of beans. Some are former members of the genus Phaseolus. According to Hortus Third, Vigna differs from Phaseolus in biochemistry and pollen structure, and in details of the style and stipules.

<i>Vigna subterranea</i> Species of plant

Vigna subterranea is a member of the family Fabaceae. Its name is derived from the Bambara ethnic group. The plant originated in West Africa. As a food and source of income, the Bambara groundnut is considered to be the third most important leguminous crop in those African countries where it is grown, after peanut and cowpea. The crop is mainly cultivated, sold and processed by women, and is, thus, particularly valuable for female subsistence farmers.

<i>Vigna aconitifolia</i> Species of flowering plant

Vigna aconitifolia is a drought-resistant legume, commonly grown in arid and semi-arid regions of India. It is commonly called mat bean, moth bean, matki or dew bean. The pods, sprouts and protein-rich seeds of this crop are commonly consumed in India. Moth bean can be grown on many soil types, and can also act as a pasture legume.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asparagus bean</span> Legume cultivated for its edible pods

The asparagus bean is a legume cultivated for its edible green pods containing immature seeds, like the green bean. It is also known as: yardlong bean, pea bean, long-podded cowpea, Chinese long bean, snake bean, bodi, and bora. Despite the common name of "yardlong", the pods are actually only about half a yard long, so the subspecies name sesquipedalis is a more accurate approximation.

<i>Striga</i> Genus of flowering plants belonging to the broomrape family

Striga, commonly known as witchweed, is a genus of parasitic plants that occur naturally in parts of Africa, Asia, and Australia. It is currently classified in the family Orobanchaceae, although older classifications place it in the Scrophulariaceae. Some species are serious pathogens of cereal crops, with the greatest effects being in savanna agriculture in Africa. It also causes considerable crop losses in other regions, including other tropical and subtropical crops in its native range and in the Americas. The generic name derives from Latin strī̆ga, "witch".

<i>Maruca vitrata</i> Species of moth

Maruca vitrata is a pantropical insect pest of leguminous crops like pigeon pea, cowpea, mung bean and soybean. Its common names include the maruca pod borer, bean pod borer, soybean pod borer, mung moth, and the legume pod borer. The species was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1787.

<i>Callosobruchus maculatus</i> Species of beetle

Callosobruchus maculatus is a species of beetles known commonly as the cowpea weevil or cowpea seed beetle. It is a member of the leaf beetle family, Chrysomelidae, and not a true weevil. It is often mistaken for Callosobruchus chinensis, another bean beetle species with a similar lifestyle. This common pest of stored legumes has a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring on every continent except Antarctica. The beetle most likely originated in West Africa and moved around the globe with the trade of legumes and other crops. As only a small number of individuals were likely present in legumes carried by people to distant places, the populations that have invaded various parts of the globe have likely gone through multiple bottlenecks. Despite these bottlenecks and the subsequent rounds of inbreeding, these populations persist. This ability to withstand a high degree of inbreeding has likely contributed to this species’ prevalence as a pest.

The Dixie Lee Pea is an heirloom variety of cowpea popular in the Carolinas, although prevalent throughout most of the American south.

<i>Vigna marina</i> Species of legume

Vigna marina is a prostrate, creeping vine and a perennial plant. Also known as the beach pea, nanea, and notched cowpea, it is a species of legume in the family Fabaceae.

Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags are bags developed by scientists at Purdue University that are used to store grain and seeds. They use a hermetic storage technology to reduce losses of post-harvest cow-pea due to orchid infestations in West and Central Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea Island red pea</span> Subspecies of cowpea plant

Sea Island red pea is an heirloom landrace of cowpea from the Gullah corridor of the Sea Islands. They are an integral part of Gullah cuisine and have been listed on the Ark of Taste.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Callosobruchus chinensis</span>

Callosobruchus chinensis, also known as the adzuki bean weevil, pulse beetle, Chinese bruchid or cowpea bruchid, is a common species of beetle found in the bean weevil subfamily. Although it is commonly known as the adzuki bean weevil, it is in fact not a true weevil, belonging instead to the leaf beetle family, Chrysomelidae.

<i>Callosobruchus</i> Genus of beetles

Callosobruchus is a genus of beetles in the family Chrysomelidae, the leaf beetles. It is in the subfamily Bruchinae, the bean weevils. Many beetles in the genus are well known as economically important pests that infest stored foodstuffs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adzuki bean</span> East and south Asian crop

Vigna angularis, also known as the adzuki bean(Japanese: 小豆, azuki, Uncommon アヅキ, adzuki), azuki bean, aduki bean, red bean, or red mung bean, is an annual vine widely cultivated throughout East Asia for its small bean. The cultivars most familiar in East Asia have a uniform red color, but there are also white, black, gray, and variously mottled varieties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arroz de fríjol cabecita negra</span>

Arroz de fríjol cabecita negra is a rice-based dish from the Caribbean Coast of Colombia that utilizes black-eyed peas as the legume, differing from other rice dishes that are usually prepared with different legumes such as beans, peas, lentils, and Pigeon peas.

References

  1. ↑ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species".
  2. ↑ "International Plant Names Index, entry for Vigna sinensis".
  3. ↑ "International Plant Names Index, entry for Pl. Jav. Rar. (Hasskarl)".
  4. 1 2 Gómez, Carlos (2004). "Cowpea Post-harvest Operations" (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2017-04-19.
  5. 1 2 Singh, B. B.; Chambliss, O. L.; Sharma, B. (1997). "Recent advances in cowpea breeding" (PDF). In Singh, B. B.; Mohan, D. R.; Dashiell, K. E.; Jackai, L. E. N. (eds.). Advances in Cowpea Research. Ibadan, Nigeria: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences.
  6. 1 2 3 Jackai, L. E. N.; Daoust, R. A. (1986). "Insect pests of cowpeas". Annual Review of Entomology. 31: 95–119. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.31.1.95.
  7. 1 2 3 Small, Ernest (2009). Top 100 Food Plants. NRC Research Press. p. 104. ISBN   978-0-660-19858-3.
  8. ↑ "Are black-eyed peas really peas?". Library of Congress. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
  9. ↑ "Southern Peas - Gardening Solutions - University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences". gardeningsolutions.ifas.ufl.edu. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
  10. ↑ "Niebe: A Food of Choice to Combat Hunger". ICCO EN. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
  11. ↑ "ñebbe - Wiktionary". en.m.wiktionary.org. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
  12. ↑ "Crowder pea". TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Padulosil, S.; Ng, N. Q. (1997). "Origin, taxonomy, and morphology of Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp." (PDF). In Singh, B. B.; Mohan, D. R.; Dashiell, K. E.; Jackai, L. E. N. (eds.). Advances in Cowpea Research. Ibadan, Nigeria: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences.
  14. 1 2 3 Perrino, P.; Laghetti, G.; Spagnoletti Zeuli, P. L.; Monti, L. M. (1993). "Diversification of cowpea in the Mediterranean and other centres of cultivation". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 40 (3): 121–132. doi:10.1007/bf00051116. S2CID   41138930.
  15. ↑ Pasquet, R. S. (1999). "Genetic relationships among subspecies of Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. based on allozyme variation". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 98 (6–7): 1104–1119. doi:10.1007/s001220051174. S2CID   38331950.
  16. ↑ This appears to be one of the latest taxonomical classifications
  17. ↑ Timko, M. P.; Ehlers, J. D.; Roberts, P.A. (2007). "Cowpea" (PDF). In Kole, C. (ed.). Pulses, Sugar and Tuber Crops, Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants. Vol. 3. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 49–67. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 June 2010.
  18. ↑ Ensminger, Marion; Ensminger, Audrey (1993). Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia. Florida: CRC Press. p. 2363. ISBN   978-0-8493-8980-1.
  19. ↑ Egbadzor, Kenneth F; Ofori, Kwadwo; Yeboah, Martin; Aboagye, Lawrence M; Opoku-Agyeman, Michael O; Danquah, Eric Y; Offei, Samuel K (2014). "Diversity in 113 cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp] accessions assessed with 458 SNP markers". SpringerPlus. 3: 541. doi: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-541 . ISSN   2193-1801. PMC   4190189 . PMID   25332852.
  20. 1 2 Sheahan, C. M. (2012). "Plant guide for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)" (PDF). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Cape May Plant Materials Center, Cape May, NJ.
  21. 1 2 3 National Research Council (2006). "Cowpea". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables. Washington DC: The National Academies Press. pp. 104–117. doi:10.17226/11763. ISBN   978-0-309-10333-6.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 Davis, D. W.; Oelke, E. A.; Oplinger, E. S.; Doll, J. D.; Hanson, C.V.; Putnam, D. H. (1991). "Cowpea". Alternative Field Crops Manual. University of Wisconsin-Extension, Cooperative Extension. Retrieved 2017-04-13.{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  23. ↑ Pottorff, Marti; Ehlers, Jeffrey D.; Fatokun, Christian; Roberts, Philip A.; Close, Timothy J. (2012). "Leaf morphology in Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp]: QTL analysis, physical mapping and identifying a candidate gene using synteny with model legume species". BMC Genomics. 13: 234. doi: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-234 . ISSN   1471-2164. PMC   3431217 . PMID   22691139.
  24. ↑ Rawal, Kanti M. (1975). "Natural hybridization among wild, weedy and cultivated Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp". Euphytica. 24 (3): 699–707. doi:10.1007/BF00132908. ISSN   0014-2336. S2CID   45539164.
  25. 1 2 Xiong, Haizheng; Shi, Ainong; Mou, Beiquan; Qin, Jun; Motes, Dennis; Lu, Weiguo; Ma, Jianbing; Weng, Yuejin; Yang, Wei (2016). "Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp)". PLOS ONE. 11 (8): e0160941. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1160941X. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160941 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4980000 . PMID   27509049.
  26. 1 2 Ogunkanmi, L. A.; Taiwo, A.; Mogaji, O. L.; Awobodede, A.; Eziashi, E. E.; Ogundipe, O. T. (2005–2006). "Assessment of genetic diversity among cultivated cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) cultivars from a range of localities across West Africa using agronomic traits". Journal Sci. Res. Dev. 10: 111–118.
  27. ↑ Chivenge, Pauline; Mabhaudhi, Tafadzwanashe; Modi, Albert T.; Mafongoya, Paramu (2017). "The Potential Role of Neglected and Underutilised Crop Species as Future Crops under Water Scarce Conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 12 (6): 5685–5711. doi: 10.3390/ijerph120605685 . ISSN   1661-7827. PMC   4483666 . PMID   26016431.
  28. ↑ D'Andrea; et al. (2007). "Early domesticated cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) from Central Ghana". Antiquity. 81 (313): 686–698. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00095661. S2CID   161301311.
  29. ↑ Ensminger, Marion Eugene; Ensminger, Audrey H. (1993). Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia, Two Volume Set. CRC Press. ISBN   978-0-8493-8980-1.
  30. ↑ Obatolu, V. A. (2003). "Growth pattern of infants fed with a mixture of extruded malted maize and cowpea". Nutrition. 19 (2): 174–178. doi:10.1016/s0899-9007(02)01102-4. PMID   12591556.
  31. ↑ Quin, F. M. (1997). "Introduction". In Singh, B. B.; Mohan Raj, D. R.; Dashiell, K. E.; Jackai, L. E. N. (eds.). Advances in Cowpea Research. Ibadan, Nigeria: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences.
  32. ↑ Blade, S. F.; Shetty, S. V. R.; Terao, T.; Singh, B. B. (1997). "Recent developments in cowpea cropping systems research". In Singh, B. B.; Mohan Raj, D. R.; Dashiell, K. E.; Jackai, L. E. N. (eds.). Advances in Cowpea Research. Ibadan, Nigeria: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences.
  33. ↑ "Production guidelines for Cowpeas" (PDF). South African Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2016.
  34. ↑ Dugje, I. Y.; Omoigui, L. O.; Ekeleme, F.; Kamara, A. Y.; Ajeigbe, H. (2009). "Farmers' Guide to Cowpea Production in West Africa". International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Ibadan, Nigeria.
  35. ↑ Matsunaga, R.; Singh, B. B.; Adamou, M.; Tobita, S.; Hayashi, K.; Kamidohzono, A. (2006). "Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata] cultivation on the Sahelian region of west Africa: Farmers' preferences and production constraints". Japanese Journal of Tropical Agriculture (Japan). ISSN   0021-5260.
  36. ↑ Poswal, M. A. T.; Akpa, A. D. (1991). "Current trends in the use of traditional and organic methods for the control of crop pests and diseases in Nigeria". Tropical Pest Management. 37 (4): 329–333. doi:10.1080/09670879109371609. ISSN   0143-6147.
  37. ↑ "Toxicity and repellence of African plants traditionally used for the protection of stored cowpea against Callosobruchus maculatus". Journal of Stored Products Research. 40 (4). ISSN   0022-474X. Archived from the original on 2017-04-14. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  38. ↑ Murdock, L. L.; Shade, R. E. (1991). "Eradication of Cowpea Weevil (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)in Cowpeas by Solar Heating". American Entomologist. 37 (4): 228–231. doi: 10.1093/ae/37.4.228 . ISSN   1046-2821.
  39. ↑ Baributsa, D.; Lowenberg-DeBoer, J.; Murdock, L.; Moussa, B. (2010). "Profitable chemical-free cowpea storage technology for smallholder farmers in Africa: opportunities and challenges". Julius-Kühn-Archiv (in German) (425): 1046–1052. doi:10.5073/jka.2010.425.340. ISSN   2199-921X.
  40. ↑ Sharma, H. C. (1998). "Bionomics, host plant resistance, and management of the legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata" (PDF). Crop Protection. 7 (5): 373–386. doi:10.1016/s0261-2194(98)00045-3.
  41. ↑ Heath, Jeffrey. "Guide to insects, arthropods, and molluscs of northern Dogon country".
  42. ↑ Jackai, L E N; Daoust, R A (1986). "Insect Pests of Cowpeas". Annual Review of Entomology . 31 (1). Annual Reviews: 95–119. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.31.010186.000523. ISSN   0066-4170.
  43. ↑ Capinera, John. "EENY223/IN380: Cowpea Curculio, Chalcodermus aeneus Boheman (Insecta: Coleoptera: Curculionidae)". University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
  44. ↑ "Callosobruchus chinensis, The Pulse Beetle | Zoology for IAS, IFoS and other competitive exams". 2006-11-26. Retrieved 2024-04-23.
  45. 1 2 3 Jayasinghe, R. C.; Premachandra, W. T. S. Dammini; Neilson, Roy (2015). "A study on Maruca vitrata infestation of Yard-long beans (Vigna unguiculata subspecies sesquipedalis)". Heliyon. 1 (1): e00014. Bibcode:2015Heliy...100014J. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2015.e00014. PMC   4939760 . PMID   27441212.
  46. ↑ Agunbiade, Tolulope A.; Coates, Brad S.; Datinon, Benjamin; Djouaka, Rousseau; Sun, Weilin; Tamò, Manuele; Pittendrigh, Barry R. (2014). "Genetic Differentiation among Maruca vitrata F. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) Populations on Cultivated Cowpea and Wild Host Plants: Implications for Insect Resistance Management and Biological Control Strategies". PLOS ONE. 9 (3): e92072. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...992072A. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092072 . PMC   3960178 . PMID   24647356.
  47. ↑ Opoku Gakpo, Joseph. "Nigerian GMO cowpea farmers testify to reduced pest infestation and better yields". Allianceforscience. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
  48. ↑ Kang, Jung Koo; Pittendrigh, Barry R.; Onstad, David W. (2013). "Insect resistance management for stored product pests: a case study of cowpea weevil (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)". Journal of Economic Entomology. 106 (6): 2473–2490. doi:10.1603/ec13340. PMID   24498750. S2CID   21508673.
  49. ↑ Tarver, Matthew R.; Shade, Richard E.; Shukle, Richard H.; Moar, William J.; Muir, William M.; Murdock, Larry M.; Pittendrigh, Barry R. (2007). "Pyramiding of insecticidal compounds for control of the cowpea bruchid (Callosobruchus maculatus F.)". Pest Management Science. 63 (5): 440–446. doi:10.1002/ps.1343. PMID   17340671.
  50. ↑ Mashela, P.; Pofu, K. (2012). "Storing cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) seeds in active cattle kraals for suppression of Callosobruchus maculatus". African Journal of Biotechnology. 11: 14713–14715.
  51. ↑ Wilson, Kenneth (1988). "Egg laying decisions by the bean weevil Callosobruchus maculatus". Ecological Entomology. 13 (1): 107–118. Bibcode:1988EcoEn..13..107W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1988.tb00338.x. S2CID   85942098.
  52. ↑ Murdock, Larry L.; Seck, Dogo; Ntoukam, Georges; Kitch, Laurie; Shade, R. E. (2003). "Preservation of cowpea grain in sub-Saharan Africa—Bean/Cowpea CRSP contributions". Field Crops Research. Research Highlights of the Bean/Cowpea Collaborative Research Support Program, 1981–2002. 82 (2–3): 169–178. doi:10.1016/S0378-4290(03)00036-4.
  53. ↑ Jackai, L. E. N.; Adalla, C. B. (1997). "Pest management practices in cowpea: a review". In Singh, B. B. (ed.). Advances in Cowpea Research. IITA. pp. 240–258. ISBN   978-978-131-110-9.
  54. ↑ Olowe, T.; Dina, S.O.; Oladiran, A.O.; Olunuga, B.A. (1987). "The control of weed, pest and disease complexes in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) by the application of pesticides singly and in combination". Crop Protection. 6 (4): 222–225. doi:10.1016/0261-2194(87)90042-1.
  55. 1 2 "Southern Pea (Blackeye, Cowpea)". plantdiseasehandbook.tamu.edu. Texas Plant Disease Handbook. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  56. 1 2 Sainsbury, Frank; Cañizares, M. Carmen; Lomonossoff, George P. (2010). "Cowpea mosaic Virus: The Plant Virus–Based Biotechnology Workhorse". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 48: 437–455. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-073009-114242. hdl: 10261/29182 . PMID   20455698.
  57. ↑ Boulter, D.; Gatehouse, A. M. R.; Hilder, V. (1989). "Use of cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI) to protect plants against insect predation". Biotechnology Advances. 7 (4): 489–497. doi:10.1016/0734-9750(89)90720-9. PMID   14542987.
  58. ↑ Gatehouse, Angharad M.R.; Davison, Gillian M.; Newell, Christine A.; Merryweather, Andrew; Hamilton, William D.O.; Burgess, Elisabeth P.J.; Gilbert, Robert J.C.; Gatehouse, John A. (1997). "Transgenic potato plants with enhanced resistance to the tomato moth, Lacanobia oleracea: growth room trials". Molecular Breeding . 3 (1). Springer Science+Business: 49–63. doi:10.1023/a:1009600321838. ISSN   1380-3743. S2CID   23765916.
  59. ↑ Wu, Hongsheng; Zhang, Yuhong; Liu, Ping; Xie, Jiaqin; He, Yunyu; Deng, Congshuang; Clercq, Patrick De; Pang, Hong (2014). "Effects of Transgenic Cry1Ac + CpTI Cotton on Non-Target Mealybug Pest Ferrisia virgata and its Predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri". PLOS ONE. 9 (4): 95537. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...995537W. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095537 . PMC   3994093 . PMID   24751821.
  60. ↑ Ajayi, Abiola; Gbadamosi, Alaba; Olumekun, Victor (2018-01-01). "Screening for Drought Tolerance in Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) at Seedling Stage under Screen House Condition".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  61. ↑ Olajide, Amos Afolarin; Ilori, Christopher Olumuyiwa (2017). "Effects of Drought on Morphological Traits in Some Cowpea Genotypes by Evaluating Their Combining Abilities". Advances in Agriculture. 2017: 1–10. doi: 10.1155/2017/7265726 . ISSN   2356-654X.
  62. ↑ Rivas, R.; Falcão, H.M.; Ribeiro, R.V.; Machado, E.C.; Pimentel, C.; Santos, M.G. (2016-03-01). "Drought tolerance in cowpea species is driven by less sensitivity of leaf gas exchange to water deficit and rapid recovery of photosynthesis after rehydration". South African Journal of Botany. 103: 101–107. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2015.08.008 . ISSN   0254-6299.
  63. ↑ Iseki, Kohtaro; Takahashi, Yu; Muto, Chiaki; Naito, Ken; Tomooka, Norihiko (2018-06-15). "Diversity of Drought Tolerance in the Genus Vigna". Frontiers in Plant Science. 9: 729. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00729 . ISSN   1664-462X. PMC   6014140 . PMID   29963062.
  64. ↑ "CWR » Cowpea Pre-breeding Project". www.cwrdiversity.org. Retrieved 2018-08-15.
  65. ↑ Ehlers, J. D.; Hall, A. E. (1997). "Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.)". Field Crops Res. 53 (1–3): 187–204. doi:10.1016/s0378-4290(97)00031-2.
  66. 1 2 Hamid, Saima; Muzaffar, Sabeera; Wani, Idrees Ahmed; Masoodi, Farooq Ahmad; Bhat, Mohd. Munaf (2016). "Physical and cooking characteristics of two cowpea cultivars grown in temperate Indian climate". Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences. 15 (2): 127–134. doi: 10.1016/j.jssas.2014.08.002 .
  67. ↑ "Cowpeas Recipe". African Foods. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  68. ↑ "Africa Imports - African Recipes - Red-Red Stew". africaimports.com. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  69. 1 2 3 4 5 Gonçalves, Alexandre; Goufo, Piebiep; Barros, Ana; Domínguez-Perles, Raúl; Trindade, Henrique; Rosa, Eduardo A. S.; Ferreira, Luis; Rodrigues, Miguel (2016). "Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), a renewed multipurpose crop for a more sustainable agrifood system: nutritional advantages and constraints". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 96 (9): 2941–2951. Bibcode:2016JSFA...96.2941G. doi:10.1002/jsfa.7644. ISSN   1097-0010. PMID   26804459.
  70. ↑ "The Long and the Short of Yard-Long Beans". Food52. 2015. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  71. ↑ "Koki". The Congo Cookbook. Archived from the original on 2017-05-18. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  72. ↑ Oyeleke, O. A.; Morton, I. D.; Bender, A. E. (1985). "The use of cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) in improving a popular Nigerian weaning food". The British Journal of Nutrition. 54 (2): 343–347. doi: 10.1079/bjn19850119 . ISSN   0007-1145. PMID   4063322. S2CID   17382544.
  73. ↑ Covey, Herbert C.; Eisnach, Dwight (2009). What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN   978-0-313-37497-5.
  74. ↑ Severson, Kim (2015). "Field Peas, a Southern Good Luck Charm". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  75. ↑ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels" . Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  76. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US). ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  77. ↑ Phillips, R. D.; McWatters, K. H.; Chinnan, M. S.; Hung, Y. C.; Beuchat, L. R.; Sefa-Dedeh, S.; Sakyi-Dawson, E.; Ngoddy, P.; Nnanyelugo, D.; Enwere, J. (2003). "Utilization of cowpeas for human food". Field Crops Res. 82 (2–3): 193–213. doi:10.1016/s0378-4290(03)00038-8.
  78. ↑ Rangel, A.; Domont, G. B.; Pedrosa, C.; Ferreira, S. T. (2003). "Functional properties of purified vicilins from cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and pea (Pisum sativum) and cowpea protein isolate". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 51 (19): 5792–5797. doi:10.1021/jf0340052. PMID   12952435.
  79. ↑ Witthöft, C.; Hefni, M. (2016). Encyclopedia of Food and Health. Oxford: Academic Press. pp. 724–730. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00300-7. ISBN   978-0-12-384953-3.
  80. ↑ Owade, Joshua O.; Abong’, George; Okoth, Michael; Mwang’ombe, Agnes W. (2019-12-17). "A review of the contribution of cowpea leaves to food and nutrition security in East Africa". Food Science & Nutrition. 8 (1): 36–47. doi:10.1002/fsn3.1337. ISSN   2048-7177. PMC   6977510 . PMID   31993130.
  81. ↑ "Cow peas, dry production in 2020, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  82. 1 2 24/01/2015 FAO 2012 FAOSTAT Gateway Archived September 6, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
  83. ↑ Langyintuo, A. S.; Lowenberg-Deboer, J.; Faye, M.; Lambert, D.; Ibro, G.; Moussa, B.; Kergna, A.; Kushwaha, S.; Musa, S.; Ntoukam, G. (2003). "Cowpea supply and demand in West and Central Africa". Field Crops Research. 82 (2–3): 215–231. doi:10.1016/s0378-4290(03)00039-x.
  84. ↑ Kormawa, P. M.; Chianu, J. N.; Manyong, V. M. (2002). "Cowpea demand and supply patterns in West Africa: the case of Nigeria". In Fatokun, C. A.; Tarawali, S. A.; Singh, B. B.; Kormawa, P. M.; Tamo, M. (eds.). Challenges and Opportunities for enhancing sustainable Cowpea production. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.