Callosobruchus chinensis

Last updated

Callosobruchus chinensis, also known as the adzuki bean weevil, pulse beetle, Chinese bruchid or cowpea bruchid, [1] is a common species of beetle found in the bean weevil subfamily. Although it is commonly known as the adzuki bean weevil, it is in fact not a true weevil, belonging instead to the leaf beetle family, Chrysomelidae.

Contents

C. chinensis is originally distributed in the tropics and subtropics of Asia. The first recorded sighting and description of C. chinensis was in China, where the species gets its name. [2] They are now spread worldwide due to the international trade of legumes.

C. chinensis is known to be a pest to many stored legumes, [3] including green gram, lentil, cowpea, pigeon pea, chickpea and split pea. The majority of their lifespan is spent on the host plant, such as growth, feed and reproduction. The penetration throughout the legume can lead to severe damage to the plant quality and thus cause huge economic loss. C. chinensis is one of the most damaging crop pests to the stored legume industry due to their generalized legume diets and wide distribution. [4]

This species has a very similar lifestyle and habitat to Callosobruchus maculatus and their identities are often mistaken for each other. [5] It also exhibits reproductive interference with C. maculatus. These beetles can be monandrous or polyandrous, depending on their environment.

Pachymerus chinensis.jpg

Description

Physiology

C. chinensis is a small insect, growing to be about 5 mm in length as an adult. Unlike true weevils, C. chinensis has no snout. Adults are described as being brown in color, with black and grey patches over the body. The abdomen of the female is slightly longer than the elytra, and it is white in colour with two oval black spots on it. This species exhibits some sexual dimorphism, with the female being larger and heavier than the male beetle. The adults are capable of flight and they can disperse to other fields and bean storage sites easily using this method. The larvae are yellowish-white in color, with reduced legs. The pupae are dark brown, and pupation occurs inside the legume. The eggs occur singly and have a yellow coloring which become opaque when hatched. [5] Their eggs become much smaller in areas of high population density to accommodate for competition of resources in the legume, which results in smaller adults and less fit larvae. [4]

Flightless vs. Flight Forms

C. chinensis have two morphologies: active or flight forms and sedentary or flightless forms. These forms have various physical and biological differences. Flightless form adults emerge earlier from dry seeds, and flight form adults emerge later from pods. In addition, flight forms have lighter colored and larger bodies, which might be necessary to fly and blend in with the environment. Flight form females also have larger wings, which could be helpful in finding pods to lay their eggs on. In contrast, flightless forms that emerge from dry seeds in storage have darker and smaller bodies. Flightless forms also show lower pre-maturation periods, lower fecundity, and shorter adult lifespans compared to flight forms. These differences might be adaptations to field conditions where pods grow for longer periods of time compared to storage conditions where flightless forms emerge earlier. [6]

Antennae

According to electron microscopy studies, antennae are composed of sections called a scape, a pedicel, and nine flagellomeres, which are used for movement of the antennae. [7] However, the antennae are pectinate, or narrow, in males, while, in females, the antennae are serrate, or thicker and notched. [2] Female antennae are shorter, while male antennae are longer. The antennae are composed of sensilla, which are used for the perception of stimuli. There are sensilla that detect odors, pheromones, and chemicals, and each is located and distributed in a specific location on the antennae. [7]

Distribution and habitat

C. chinensis displays a cosmopolitan distribution pattern and has been spotted in most countries due to the commercial export of beans. [2] The beetle's natural ranges are in the tropics and subtropics of Asia, and their population has grown extensively since the cultivation and distribution of legumes. Their distribution is heavily influenced by human production since they only live on legumes suitable for mating and feeding their larvae.

Some of their common host plants include green gram, lentil, cowpea, pigeon pea, chickpea and other pea species, though they are known to live on a larger variety of legume hosts. [8] The species' most preferred habitat is in the tropics, on green gram or chickpeas.

C. chinensis reaches the height of egg production and legume infestation in July–August. [2]

Food resources

Both the larvae and the adults feed on the legume. In general, C. chinensis can feen on any legume type that they can live on, including beans, lentils, chickpeas and split peas.

Oviposition

Females lay one egg in a single seed. They avoid seeds that already have eggs by detecting physicochemical stimuli. However, when resources are scarce, females may lay multiple eggs on a single seed. Despite this, the distribution of eggs is regular, which indicates that C. chinensis determines how many eggs are in a seed. Laying as few eggs as possible on a seed could reduce competition between larvae in a seed, which is beneficial for the survival of offspring even if looking for empty seeds may require more energy expenditure for the mother. The instar development duration decreases when there are more than two larvae in a seed. A study found that, as the number of eggs on a seed increased, reproduction rate decreased and instar mortality increased. [9]

Life History

Adzuki bean weevil females lay their eggs directly on the surface of the legume singly and move on to either a different part of the legume or to a different one depending on bean density and competition among other females. They can lay as many as 90 eggs after a single fertilization. Fecundity is relative to which legume is being used as a host and female fitness. [2] The eggs usually hatch after 3–5 days and the new larvae will burrow into the bean for the rest of development.

The larvae chew tunnels through the bean until it is ready to pupate. Mature adults emerge from the bean, biting a neat circular exit from the pod 25 days after hatching. The adult beetles live up to two weeks after emerging from the pupa. [4]

The total life cycle of C. chinensis ranges from 29 to 39 days depending on different pulses they grow in. The incubation period ranges from 4 to 6 days, the larval period from 12 to 20 days, the pupal period from 7 to 10 days, and adult longevity from 7 to 20 days. [10]

Parasitism

C. chinensis are host to various parasites, including mites that prey on eggs and wasp species that are larval parasitoids. [11] A. calandrae is a parasitic wasp that attack C. chinensis by laying their eggs in seeds with C. chinensis eggs. A. calandrae paralyze host larvae so that their own larvae can emerge and develop from the host seed. [12] If C. chinensis lay more than one egg on a single seed, A. calandrae are able to find seeds more efficiently, which suggests why C. chinensis may avoid laying multiple eggs in one seed. [9]

Protective behavior

Death feigning

C. chinensis shows death feigning behavior as an anti-predatory technique. Certain stimuli will startle the beetle, and it will roll onto its back and curl its legs up. This is likely used in order to dissuade parasitoid wasps from preying on the beetle. [13]

Temperature has been shown to alter this behavior in adult beetles. As temperatures rise, this behavior becomes less common. [13] A larger body size also shows a decline in thanatosis. [14]

Mating

Male Genital Organ

Male C. chinensis have large genital sclerites located at the end of their intromittent organ. This is used to transfer sperm more effectively as they act as anchors attaching to the inside of the female genital opening. These sclerites do not appear to significantly damage the female reproductive tract, which is seen in similar species whose sclerites are less developed, like Callosobruchus maculatus . The male intromittent organ, when extended, can be almost twice the size of the beetle, but only the tip of it is inserted inside the female during reproduction. [15]

Courting Behavior

When male C. chinensis want to mate, they raise their antennae at the female and rub them against her. After rubbing, the male mounts the rear of the female, and even when the female escapes or attempts to escape, males continue to chase after and rub their antennae. [16] Female courting behavior entails a calling position where it raises its abdomen while tipping the head down. While in this position, the female releases sex pheromones, and rubbing the abdomen with the hind legs may help in releasing the pheromones. [17]

Sex Pheromones

Sex pheromones are released by females from the abdomen during the first few days of adult life, and once a female has mated, the release of pheromones decreases. The release of the pheromone is highest during the first 4 days of adult life and then decreases drastically by day 7.  During copulation, pheromones are released from both sexes, but only affect the male. [17]

Cost of Mating and Egg Production

Virgin C. chinensis females have a higher life span compared to females who only mate and females who mate and lay eggs, indicating that there is a cost to mating. In addition, C. chinensis females who only mate also have a higher life span than females who lay eggs, corroborating a cost to egg production. The production of eggs can be costly because it requires energy and limited resources, which may decrease the life span of females. In addition, C. maculatus males damage the female genital tract with their genitalia, which are made of a sclerotized spine. There could be a similar mechanism among C. chinensis males, which would be very costly to the female. However, this behavior has not been experimentally investigated. [16]

Inbreeding

Female C. chinensis life spans are very short, so they mate quickly and regardless of relatedness. This breeding behavior leads to inbreeding.However, females can still recognize relatedness and prefer non-related mates. If given only one male, females mated indiscriminately, but if given two males (related and non-related), females chose mates that are unrelated. In addition, if females mated with related males, they were more likely to mate again compared to females who mated with unrelated males. [18]

Polyandry

It has been reported that C. chinensis females do not remate after mating once, but research has showed that some strains of C. chinensis exhibit polyandry. In the study, the polyandry strain is derived from the field, while the monandry strain is derived from the laboratory. Mating multiple times may produce offspring that are genetically diverse, which is beneficial in environments that change. Since laboratory environments are stable, polyandry may not provide the benefits that it does in the wild and, thus, monandry evolves. The study also found that polyandry can be selected for and is dominantly inherited. [19]

Females that already mated once refuse to mate with males again by trying to escape. Females that refuse to mate again are generally smaller and have lower fecundity and life span. Possible explanations for this are that larger females may be able to store and use more sperm, and the cost of mating may not be as high. Male mating behavior may also affect whether females remate or not. If males can sense that females are more viable, they may attempt to mate more consistently. [20]

Strategic Ejaculation

Males also change their mating behavior depending on larval rearing density and polyandry. In a study, if females were polyandrous, males ejaculate more when they were reared under a high larval density compared to a low larval density. This is because there is a higher competition of sperm since there are more rival males that females could mate with. However, if females mated only once, males ejaculated more when they were reared under low larval density. In high larval densities, there are more females that males could mate with, so males might decrease the amount of sperm ejaculated in individual females so that they can save sperm to mate with more females. [21]

Reproductive interference

Reproductive interference between species can have various effects that reduce the fitness of individuals in either species. This type of interference is thought to be a mechanism behind species exclusion, where the sexually dominant species sexually excludes the less dominant species. [22] C. chinensis males regularly attempt to copulate with female Callosobruchus maculatus . This is quite commonly observed in these insects as they are congeneric species of bean weevil with a major niche overlap. This indiscriminate heterospecific copulation behavior has been observed even when female C. chinensis are present. [5]

C. chinensis are sexually dominant over C. maculatus, with C. chinensis males reducing fecundity in C. maculatus females much more than C. maculatus males do on C. chinensis females, though it is unclear as to why this happens. Males from both species do not tell apart conspecifics and attempt to mate with any female of either species. Despite this, the reduction in fecundity is still present because of copulation between C. chinensis males with C. maculatus females. [22] [23] Specifically, fecundity decreases in females after multiple copulations. [23] While reproductive interference in these two beetles is mostly behavioral, C. chinensis males do copulate with C. maculatus females occasionally while C. maculatus males and C. chinensis females rarely do. [22] [23] C. chinensis also exhibit sexual harassment with males attempting to insert their penis into C. maculatus females. This behavior in C. chinensis males triggers C. maculatus females to avoid or escape mating much more than C. chinensis females. This could be because some C. chinensis females mate only once and refuse mating with other males. However, this behavior does not necessarily reduce fecundity in C. maculatus females. [23]

Interaction with the host plant

Mated female adults have preference behavior toward 2-hexenal and benzaldehyde. It was found that the mixture of a specific ratio of these two chemicals from some plants had high attraction toward the beetle of both genders, which reveals potential pest control treatment. [24]

Pest control

Since C. chinensis is a pest of stored legumes and pulses, various methods have been developed to control the population of C. chinensis in storage facilities.

Parasites as Pest Control

Using natural parasites of C. chinensis can be effective at reducing their populations in storage environments. While mites can prey on their eggs, they are not very effective because eggs are attached to the seeds instead of being loose. However, parasitic wasps can be very effective at removing or reducing the population size of C. chinensis. A study looking at the efficiency of parasites as biological pest controls found that parasitoids A. calandrae and L. distingeundus are able to find larvae at least 150 cm away through odor. [12]

Some ants species can be used as the pest control method for the beetle. D. labiatus has shown the most remarkable effect at killing the beetle’s larvae and pupae. M. minimum was highly effective at killing the beetle’s eggs. C. rufipes has a better ability to kill adult beetles. [25]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bean weevil</span> Subfamily of beetles

The bean weevils or seed beetles are a subfamily (Bruchinae) of beetles, now placed in the family Chrysomelidae, though they have historically been treated as a separate family. They are granivores, and typically infest various kinds of seeds or beans, living most of their lives inside a single seed. The subfamily includes about 1,650 species and are found worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Citrus long-horned beetle</span> Species of beetle

Anoplophora chinensis, the citrus long-horned beetle, is a long-horned beetle native to Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan and Southeast Asia where it is considered a serious pest. This beetle has invaded several countries in Europe, including Italy, Switzerland, Turkey, France, Germany, and Croatia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drugstore beetle</span> Species of beetle

The drugstore beetle, also known as the bread beetle, biscuit beetle, and misnamed as the biscuit weevil, is a tiny, brown beetle. It can be found infesting a wide variety of dried plant products, where it is among the most common non-weevils to be found. It is the only living member of the genus Stegobium. It belongs to the family Ptinidae, which also includes the deathwatch beetle and furniture beetle. A notable characteristic of this species is the symbiotic relationship the beetles have with the yeast they carry, which are transmitted from female to larvae through the oviduct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indianmeal moth</span> Species of moth

The Indianmeal moth, also spelled Indian meal moth and Indian-meal moth, is a pyraloid moth of the family Pyralidae. Alternative common names are hanger-downers, weevil moth, pantry moth, flour moth or grain moth. The almond moth and the raisin moth are commonly confused with the Indian-meal moth due to similar food sources and appearance. The species was named for feeding on Indian meal or cornmeal, and does not occur natively in India. It is also not to be confused with the Mediterranean flour moth, another common pest of stored grains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European corn borer</span> Species of moth

The European corn borer, also known as the European corn worm or European high-flyer, is a moth of the family Crambidae. It is a pest of grain, particularly maize. The insect is native to Europe, originally infesting varieties of millet, including broom corn. The European corn borer was first reported in North America in 1917 in Massachusetts, but was probably introduced from Europe several years earlier. Since its initial discovery in the Americas, the insect has spread into Canada and westwards across the United States to the Rocky Mountains.

<i>Lasioderma serricorne</i> Species of beetle

Lasioderma serricorne, commonly known as the cigarette beetle, cigar beetle, or tobacco beetle, is an insect very similar in appearance to the drugstore beetle and the common furniture beetle. All three species of beetles belong to the family Ptinidae.

<i>Spodoptera littoralis</i> Species of moth

Spodoptera littoralis, also referred to as the African cotton leafworm or Egyptian cotton leafworm or Mediterranean brocade, is a species of moth in the family Noctuidae. S. littoralis is found widely in Africa, Mediterranean Europe and Middle Eastern countries. It is a highly polyphagous organism that is a pest of many cultivated plants and crops. As a result, this species was assigned the label of A2 quarantine pest by the EPPO and was cautioned as a highly invasive species in the United States. The devastating impacts caused by these pests have led to the development of both biological and chemical control methods. This moth is often confused with Spodoptera litura.

<i>Callosobruchus maculatus</i> Species of beetle

Callosobruchus maculatus is a species of beetles known commonly as the cowpea weevil or cowpea seed beetle. It is a member of the leaf beetle family, Chrysomelidae, and not a true weevil. This common pest of stored legumes has a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring on every continent except Antarctica. The beetle most likely originated in West Africa and moved around the globe with the trade of legumes and other crops. As only a small number of individuals were likely present in legumes carried by people to distant places, the populations that have invaded various parts of the globe have likely gone through multiple bottlenecks. Despite these bottlenecks and the subsequent rounds of inbreeding, these populations persist. This ability to withstand a high degree of inbreeding has likely contributed to this species’ prevalence as a pest.

<i>Rhyzopertha</i> Genus of beetles

Rhyzopertha is a monotypic genus of beetles in the family Bostrichidae, the false powderpost beetles. The sole species, Rhyzopertha dominica, is known commonly as the lesser grain borer, American wheat weevil, Australian wheat weevil, and stored grain borer. It is a beetle commonly found within store bought products and pest of stored cereal grains located worldwide. It is also a major pest of peanuts. The first documentation of wheat infestation by R. dominica was observed in Australia. R. dominica are usually reddish brown to dark brown in coloration, vary in sizes, elongated and cylindrical.

<i>Caryobruchus gleditsiae</i> Species of beetle

Caryobruchus gleditsiae is a species of beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. It lives in North and Central America and develops inside the seeds of palm trees. Adults grow to a maximum length of 11 mm (0.43 in), the size depending on the size of the seed it grew up in. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1763 Centuria Insectorum.

<i>Acanthoscelides</i> Genus of beetles

Acanthoscelides is a genus of bean weevils of the subfamily Bruchinae. They are native to the New World. About one third of them can be found in Mexico.

<i>Bruchidius</i> Genus of beetles

Bruchidius is a genus of beetles in the bean weevil subfamily (Bruchinae) of the leaf beetle family, Chrysomelidae. Most are native to the Old World.

<i>Phoracantha semipunctata</i> Species of beetle

Phoracantha semipunctata, the Australian Eucalyptus longhorn, is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. Native to Australia, it has now spread to many parts of the world, including practically all countries where tree species of Eucalyptus have been introduced. It has been classified as an invasive pest species of Eucalyptus outside Australia.

<i>Acanthoscelides obtectus</i> Species of beetle

Acanthoscelides obtectus, the bean weevil, is a species of bruchid beetle. The species was described in 1831 by Thomas Say.

<i>Araecerus fasciculatus</i> Species of beetle

Araecerus fasciculatus, the coffee bean weevil, is a species of beetle (Coleoptera) belonging to the family Anthribidae. Despite its name, it affects a wide range of stored products and some field crops and is accredited with consuming more than 100 different kinds of stored goods. This polyphagous insect is often found in stored crops such as: corn, cassava, sweet potatoes, nutmeg, dried fruits and various nuts. Through trade it has become cosmopolitan in its distribution and is considered an economically important global pest. A. fasciculatus causes significant damage to stored food goods, can result in loss of mass quantities of product and can reduce the quality of the stored goods.

<i>Bruchus rufimanus</i> Species of beetle

Bruchus rufimanus, commonly known as the broadbean weevil, broadbean beetle, or broadbean seed beetle is a leaf beetle which inhabits crops and fields, as well as some homes. It is a pest of faba beans. The adult beetles feed on pollen, while their larvae tunnel in seeds destroying crops and moving on to new ones once they dry out. The adult beetle, being one of the biggest of its genus, ranges from 3 to 5 mm in length.

<i>Callosobruchus</i> Genus of beetles

Callosobruchus is a genus of beetles in the family Chrysomelidae, the leaf beetles. It is in the subfamily Bruchinae, the bean weevils. Many beetles in the genus are well known as economically important pests that infest stored foodstuffs.

<i>Bruchus pisorum</i> Species of beetle

Bruchus pisorum, known generally as pea weevil, is a species of leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. Other common names include the pea beetle and pea seed beetle. It is found in Europe and Northern Asia, North America, and temperate Asia.

Lariophagus distinguendus is a idiobiont ectoparasitoid hymenopteran in the family Pteromalidae, superfamily Chalcidoidea. It parasitizes small beetle larvae concealed in seeds, as well as prepupae and pupae in their cocoons. It is used for the biological control of several beetle pests of stored products, particularly in central Europe, where it is produced commercially and distributed by at least 11 companies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White worm beetle</span> Species of beetle

The white worm beetle is a species of beetle in the family Scarabaeidae. It is the only species in the genus Hylamorpha. This beetle is native to South America, particularly found in regions of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay.

References

  1. ↑ Chandra, Girish (26 November 2006). "Callosobruchus chinensis The Pulse Beetle Cowpea Bruchid". IASZOOLOGY.COM. IAS Zoology. Retrieved 28 November 2014.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Varma, S.; Anadi, P. (2010). ". Biology of Pulse Beetle (Callosobruchus chinensis Linn., Coleoptera: Bruchidae) and Their Management Through Botanicals on Stored Mung Grains in Allahabad Region". Legume Research. 33 (1): 38–41.
  3. ↑ Srinivasan, T.; Durairaj, C. (2008). "Damage Potential of Bruchids in Different Edible Legumes and Interspecific Competition Between Two Species of Callosobruchus spp. (Bruchidae: Coleoptera)". ICFAI Journal of Life Sciences. 2 (4): 42–49. Archived from the original on 2015-09-07. Retrieved 2014-11-28.
  4. 1 2 3 Yanagi, S.; Saeki, Y.; Tuda, M. (2013). "Adaptive Egg Size Plasticity for Larval Competition and its Limits in the Seed Beetle Callosobruchus chinensis". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 148 (2): 182–187. Bibcode:2013EEApp.148..182Y. doi:10.1111/eea.12088. S2CID   84019187.
  5. 1 2 3 Kyogoku, D; Nishida, T. (2013). "The mechanism of the fecundity reduction in Callosobruchus maculatus caused by Callosobruchus chinensis males". Population Ecology. 55 (1): 87–93. Bibcode:2013PopEc..55...87K. doi:10.1007/s10144-012-0344-3. S2CID   16030933.
  6. ↑ Nahdy, M. Silim; Silim, S. N; Ellis, R. H (1999-10-01). "Effect of field infestations of immature pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) pods on production of active (flight) and sedentary (flightless) morphs of Callosobruchus chinensis (L.)". Journal of Stored Products Research. 35 (4): 339–354. doi:10.1016/S0022-474X(99)00017-X. ISSN   0022-474X.
  7. 1 2 Hu, Fei; Zhang, Guo-Na; Wang, Jin-Jun (April 2009). "Scanning electron microscopy studies of antennal sensilla of bruchid beetles, Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) and Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)". Micron. 40 (3): 320–326. doi:10.1016/j.micron.2008.11.001. PMID   19101159.
  8. ↑ Neog, P. (2012). "Studies on adult longevity of Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) developing in different pulses". International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress Management. 3 (3): 383–386.
  9. 1 2 Ryoo, Mun Il; Chun, Yong Shik (1993-10-01). "Oviposition Behavior of Callosobruchus chinensis (Coleoptera:Bruchidae) and Weevil Population Growth: Effects of Larval Parasitism and Competition". Environmental Entomology. 22 (5): 1009–1015. doi:10.1093/ee/22.5.1009. ISSN   1938-2936.
  10. ↑ Hosamani, Goutam B; Jagginavar, S. B.; Karabhantanal, S. S. (2018). "Biology of pulse beetle Callosobruchus chinensis on different pulses". Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies. 6 (4): 1898–1900.
  11. ↑ Iturralde-García, Rey D.; Riudavets, Jordi; Castañé, Cristina (2020-10-01). "Biological control of Callosobruchus chinensis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in stored chickpeas through the release of natural enemies". Biological Control. 149: 104322. Bibcode:2020BiolC.14904322I. doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2020.104322. hdl: 20.500.12327/844 . ISSN   1049-9644. S2CID   219760135.
  12. 1 2 Zhang, Yue; Yu, Fang; Wu, Li-hong; Dai, Ren-huai; Yang, Hong; Zhang, Xiao-min; Hu, Da-ming (2022-05-01). "Life history traits of the parasitoid Anisopteromalus calandrae (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) on three beetle hosts". Journal of Stored Products Research. 97: 101973. doi:10.1016/j.jspr.2022.101973. ISSN   0022-474X. S2CID   247917565.
  13. 1 2 Miyatake, T.; Harano, T.; Okada, K. (2008). "Negative relationship between ambient temperature and death-feigning intensity in adult Callosobruchus maculatus and Callosobruchus chinensis". Physiological Entomology. 33 (1): 83–88. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3032.2007.00607.x. S2CID   84241063.
  14. ↑ Hozumi, N.; Miyatake, T (2005). "Body-size dependent difference in death-feigning behavior of adult Callosobruchus chinensis". Journal of Insect Behavior. 18 (4): 557–566. Bibcode:2005JIBeh..18..557H. doi:10.1007/s10905-005-5612-z. S2CID   503322.
  15. ↑ Sakuri, G.; Himuro, C.; Kasuya, E. (2012). "Intra-specific Variation in the Morphology and the Benefit of Large Genital Sclerites of Males in the Adzuki Bean Beetle (Callosobruchus chinensis)". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 25 (7): 1291–1297. doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2012.02517.x. PMID   22536996. S2CID   557857.
  16. 1 2 Yanagi, Shin-ichi; Miyatake, Takahisa (September 2003). "Costs of mating and egg production in female Callosobruchus chinensis". Journal of Insect Physiology. 49 (9): 823–827. doi:10.1016/S0022-1910(03)00119-7. PMID   16256684.
  17. 1 2 Qi, Yun-Tai; Burkholder, W. E. (February 1982). "Sex pheromone biology and behavior of the cowpea weevilCallosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 8 (2): 527–534. Bibcode:1982JCEco...8..527Q. doi:10.1007/BF00987800. ISSN   0098-0331. PMID   24414963. S2CID   12052785.
  18. ↑ Harano, Tomohiro; Katsuki, Masako (April 2012). "Female seed beetles, Callosobruchus chinensis, remate more readily after mating with relatives". Animal Behaviour. 83 (4): 1007–1010. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.01.022. S2CID   53177750.
  19. ↑ Harano, Tomohiro; Miyatake, Takahisa (August 2005). "Heritable variation in polyandry in Callosobruchus chinensis". Animal Behaviour. 70 (2): 299–304. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.10.023. S2CID   53164826.
  20. ↑ Harano, Tomohiro; Yasui, Yukio; Miyatake, Takahisa (March 2006). "Direct effects of polyandry on female fitness in Callosobruchus chinensis". Animal Behaviour. 71 (3): 539–548. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.05.017. S2CID   54304381.
  21. ↑ Yamane, Takashi; Miyatake, Takahisa (November 2005). "Intra-specific variation in strategic ejaculation according to level of polyandry in Callosobruchus chinensis". Journal of Insect Physiology. 51 (11): 1240–1243. doi:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2005.07.001. PMID   16098984.
  22. 1 2 3 Kishi, Shigeki; Nishida, Takayoshi; Tsubaki, Yoshitaka (September 2009). "Reproductive interference determines persistence and exclusion in species interactions". Journal of Animal Ecology. 78 (5): 1043–1049. Bibcode:2009JAnEc..78.1043K. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2009.01560.x. ISSN   0021-8790. PMID   19457018.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Kyogoku, Daisuke; Nishida, Takayoshi (January 2013). "The mechanism of the fecundity reduction in Callosobruchus maculatus caused by Callosobruchus chinensis males". Population Ecology. 55 (1): 87–93. Bibcode:2013PopEc..55...87K. doi:10.1007/s10144-012-0344-3. ISSN   1438-3896. S2CID   16030933.
  24. ↑ WANG, Hong-min; BAI, Peng-hua; ZHANG, Jing; ZHANG, Xue-min; HUI, Qin; ZHENG, Hai-xia; ZHANG, Xian-hong. "Attraction of bruchid beetles Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) to host plant volatiles". Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 19 (12): 3035–3044.
  25. ↑ Aslam, Muhammad Aslam Muhammad; Shaheen, F. A.; Ayyaz, Arshad Ayyaz Arshad. [Management of Callosobruchus chinensis Linnaeus in stored chickpea through interspecific and intraspecific predation by ants. "Management of Callosobruchus chinensis Linnaeus in stored chickpea through interspecific and intraspecific predation by ants"]. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2 (1): 85–89.{{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.