Pigeon pea

Last updated

Pigeon pea
Cajanus cajan Blanco1.167-cropped.jpg
Botanical illustration of the morphological details of a C. cajan specimen.
Cajanus cajan Leaf, flowers and fruits.png
Botanical image depicting the foliage characteristics and differing pod and flower phenotypes.
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Genus: Cajanus
Species:
C. cajan
Binomial name
Cajanus cajan
(L.) Huth

The pigeon pea [1] (Cajanus cajan) or toor dal is a perennial legume from the family Fabaceae native to the Eastern Hemisphere. [2] The pigeon pea is widely cultivated in tropical and semitropical regions around the world, being commonly consumed in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean. [3] : 5941 

Contents

Etymology and other names

Botanical inscription of C. cajan from Hendrik van Rheede transcribed in Devanagari, Malayalam, Arabic and the Latin alphabet from "Hortus Malabaricus" (1686). Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth); branch with flowers an Wellcome V0042649.jpg
Botanical inscription of C. cajan from Hendrik van Rheede transcribed in Devanagari, Malayalam, Arabic and the Latin alphabet from "Hortus Malabaricus" (1686).

Scientific epithet

The scientific name for the genus Cajanus and the species cajan derive from the Malay word katjang (modern spelling: kacang) meaning legume in reference to the bean of the plant. [5]

Common English names

In English they are commonly referred to as pigeon pea which originates from the historical utilization of the pulse as pigeon fodder in Barbados. [6] [7] The term Congo pea and Angola pea developed due to the presence of its cultivation in Africa and the association of its utilization with those of African descent. [8] [9] The names no-eye pea and red gram both refer to the characteristics of the seed, with no-eye pea in reference to the lack of a hilum blotch on most varieties, unlike the black-eyed pea, and red gram in reference to the red color of most Indian varieties and gram simply referring to the plant being a legume. [10]

Internationally

Africa

In Benin the pigeon pea is locally known as klouékoun in Fon, otinin in Ede and eklui in Adja. [11] In Cape Verde they are called Fixon Kongu in Cape Verdean creole. [12] In Comoros and Mauritius they are known as embrevade or ambrebdade in Comorian [13] and Morisyen, respectively, in return originating from the Malagasy term for the plant amberivatry. [14] In Ghana they are known as aduwa or adowa in Dagbani. [15] [16] In Kenya and Tanzania they are known as mbaazi in Swahili. [17] In Malawi they are called nandolo in Chichewa. [18] In Nigeria pigeon peas are called fiofio or mgbụmgbụ in Igbo, [19] [20] waken-masar "Egyptian bean" [21] or waken-turawa "foreigner bean" [22] in Hausa, [23] and otinli in Yoruba. [24] In Sudan they are known as adaseya, adasy and adasia. [25] [26]

Asia

Pigeon peas displayed next to a ruler from the Ereke market in Buton Island, Indonesia Pigeon peas dried with ruler.jpg
Pigeon peas displayed next to a ruler from the Ereke market in Buton Island, Indonesia

In India the plant is known by various different names such as

  • Assamese: ৰহৰ মাহ (rohor mah), মিৰি মাহ (miri-mah)
  • Bengali: অড়হর (arahar)
  • Gujarati: તુવેર (tuver)
  • Hindi: अरहर (arhar), तुवर (tuvar)
  • Kannada: ತೊಗರಿ ಬೆಳೆ (togari bele), ತೊಗರಿ ಕಾಳು (togari kalu)
  • Konkani: तोरी (tori)
  • Malayalam: ആഢകി (adhaki), തുവര (tuvara)
  • Manipuri: মাইৰোংবী (mairongbi)
  • Marathi: तूर (tur)
  • Nepali: रहर (rahar)
  • Oriya: ହରଡ଼ (harada), କାକ୍ଷୀ (kakhyi), ତୁବର (tubara)
  • Punjabi: ਦਿੰਗੇਰ (dinger)
  • Tamil: ஆடகி (adhaki), இருப்புலி (iruppuli), காய்ச்சி (kaycci) and துவரை (tuvarai)
  • Telugu: కంది (kandi), ఆఢకి (adhaki), తొగరి (togari), తువరము (tuvaramu)[ citation needed ]
  • Tibetan: tu ba ri
  • Urdu: ارهر (arhar), توأر (tuar). [27] [28]

In Persian,it is known as شاخول (shakhul) and is popular in dishes. In the Philippines they are known as Kadios in Filipino and Kadyos in Tagalog. [29] [30]

The Americas

In Latin America, [31] they are known as guandul or gandul in Spanish, and feijão andu or gandu in Portuguese all of which derive from Kikongo wandu or from Kimbundu oanda; both names referring to the same plant. [32] [33] [34] [35]

In the Anglophone regions of the Caribbean, like Jamaica, [36] they are known as Gungo peas, coming from the more archaic English name for the plant congo pea, given to the plant because of its popularity and relation to Sub-Saharan Africa. [37] [38]

In Francophone regions of the Caribbean they are known as pois d' angole, [39] pwa di bwa in Antillean creole [40] and pwa kongo in Haitian creole. [41]

In Suriname they are known as wandoe [42] or gele pesi, [43] the former of which is derived from the same source as its Spanish and Portuguese counterparts, the latter of which literally translates to 'yellow pea' from Dutch and Sranan Tongo.

Oceania

In Hawaii they are known as pi pokoliko 'Puerto Rican pea' or pi nunu 'pigeon pea' in the Hawaiian language. [44]

History and origin

Pigeon pea flowers Cajanus cajan, flowers.jpg
Pigeon pea flowers
Pollen grains of Pigeon pea Pollen grains of Pigeon pea.jpg
Pollen grains of Pigeon pea

Origin

The closest relatives to the cultivated pigeon pea are Cajanus cajanifolia, Cajanus scarabaeoides and Cajanus kerstingii, native to India and the latter West Africa respectively. [45] [46] [47] Much debate exist over the geographical origin of the species, with some groups claiming origin from the Nile river and Western Africa, and the other Indian origin. [48] The two epicenters of genetic diversity exist in both Africa and India, but India is considered to be its primary center of origin with West Africa being considered a second major center of origin. [49]

History

By at least 2,800 BCE in peninsular India, [50] where its presumptive closest wild relatives Cajanus cajanifolia occurs in tropical deciduous woodlands, its cultivation has been documented. [51] Archaeological finds of pigeon pea cultivation dating to about 14th century BC have also been found at the Neolithic site of Sanganakallu in Bellary and its border area Tuljapur (where the cultivation of African domesticated plants like pearl millet, finger millet, and Lablab have also been uncovered), [52] as well as in Gopalpur and other South Indian states. [53]

From India it may have made its way to North-East Africa via Trans-Oceanic Bronze Age trade that allowed cross-cultural exchange of resources and agricultural products. [54] The earliest evidence of pigeon peas in Africa was found in Ancient Egypt with the presence of seeds in Egyptian tombs dating back to around 2,200 BCE. [55] From eastern Africa, cultivation spread further west and south through the continent, where by means of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, it reached the Americas around the 17th century. [38]

Pigeon peas were introduced to Hawaii in 1824 by James Macrae with a few specimens becoming naturalized on the islands, but they wouldn't gain much popularity until later. [56] By the early 20th century Filipinos and Puerto Ricans began to emigrate from the American Philippines and Puerto Rico to Hawaii to work in sugarcane plantations in 1906 and 1901, respectively. [57] [58] [59] Pigeon peas are said to have been popularized on the island by the Puerto Rican community where by the First World War their cultivation began, to expand on the island where they are still cultivated and consumed by locals. [60]

Nutrition

Pigeon peas, immature, raw
Pigeon peas.jpg
Pigeon peas in Trinidad and Tobago
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 569 kJ (136 kcal)
23.88 g
Sugars 3 g
Dietary fiber 5.1 g
Fat
1.64 g
7.2 g
Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
33%
0.4 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
13%
0.17 mg
Niacin (B3)
14%
2.2 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
14%
0.68 mg
Vitamin B6
4%
0.068 mg
Folate (B9)
43%
173 μg
Choline
8%
45.8 mg
Vitamin C
43%
39 mg
Vitamin E
3%
0.39 mg
Vitamin K
20%
24 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
3%
42 mg
Iron
9%
1.6 mg
Magnesium
16%
68 mg
Manganese
25%
0.574 mg
Phosphorus
10%
127 mg
Potassium
18%
552 mg
Sodium
0%
5 mg
Zinc
9%
1.04 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
Values for Choline, Vit. E/K available
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [61] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [62]
Pigeon peas, mature, raw
Cajanus cajan Steve Hurst 1.jpg
Seeds of the pigeon pea
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,435 kJ (343 kcal)
62.78 g
Sugars n/a
Dietary fiber 15 g
Fat
1.49 g
21.7 g
Tryptophan 212 mg
Threonine 767 mg
Isoleucine 785 mg
Leucine 1549 mg
Lysine 1521 mg
Methionine 243 mg
Cystine 250 mg
Phenylalanine 1858 mg
Tyrosine 538 mg
Valine 937 mg
Arginine 1299 mg
Histidine 774 mg
Alanine 972 mg
Aspartic acid 2146 mg
Glutamic acid 5031 mg
Glycine 802 mg
Proline 955 mg
Serine 1028 mg
Hydroxyproline 0 mg
Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
54%
0.643 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
14%
0.187 mg
Niacin (B3)
19%
2.965 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
25%
1.266 mg
Vitamin B6
17%
0.283 mg
Folate (B9)
114%
456 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
10%
130 mg
Iron
29%
5.23 mg
Magnesium
44%
183 mg
Manganese
78%
1.791 mg
Phosphorus
29%
367 mg
Potassium
46%
1392 mg
Sodium
1%
17 mg
Zinc
25%
2.76 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
Values for Choline, Vit. E/K unavailable
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [61] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [62]

Pigeon peas contain high levels of protein and the important amino acids methionine, lysine, and tryptophan. [63]

The following table indicates completeness of nutritional profile of various amino acids within mature seeds of pigeon pea.

Essential Amino AcidAvailable mg/g of ProteinMin. Required mg/g of Protein
Tryptophan 9.767
Threonine 32.3427
Isoleucine 36.1725
Leucine 71.355
Lysine 70.0951
Methionine+Cystine 22.725
Phenylalanine+Tyrosine 110.447
Valine 43.132
Histidine 35.6618

Methionine + Cystine combination is the only limiting amino acid combination in pigeon pea. In contrast to the mature seeds, the immature seeds are generally lower in all nutritional values, however they contain a significant amount of vitamin C (39 mg per 100 g serving) and have a slightly higher fat content. Research has shown that the protein content of the immature seeds is of a higher quality. [64]

Cultivation

Harvested pigeon peas from Cape Verde Cap-Vert-Pois secs.jpg
Harvested pigeon peas from Cape Verde

Pigeon peas can be of a perennial variety, in which the crop can last three to five years (although the seed yield drops considerably after the first two years), or an annual variety more suitable for seed production. [69]

Global production

Naturalized pigeon peas growing on Cha das Caldeiras on Fogo island in Cape Verde Cha das Caldeiras-Pois (1).JPG
Naturalized pigeon peas growing on Cha das Caldeiras on Fogo island in Cape Verde

World production of pigeon peas is estimated at 4.49 million tons. [70] About 63% of this production comes from India.[ citation needed ] The total number of hectares grown to pigeon pea is estimated at 5.4 million. [70] India accounts for 72% of the area grown to pigeon pea or 3.9 million hectares. Africa is the secondary centre of diversity and at present it contributes about 21% of global production with 1.05 million tons. Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya, Mozambique and Uganda are the major producers in Africa. [71]

The pigeon pea is an important legume crop of rainfed agriculture in the semiarid tropics. The Indian subcontinent, Africa and Central America, in that order, are the world's three main pigeon pea-producing regions. Pigeon peas are cultivated in more than 25 tropical and subtropical countries, either as a sole crop or intermixed with cereals, such as sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor ), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), or maize (Zea mays), or with other legumes, such as peanuts (Arachis hypogea). Being a legume capable of symbiosis with Rhizobia, the bacteria associated with the pigeon pea enrich soils through symbiotic nitrogen fixation. [72]

The crop is cultivated on marginal land by resource-poor farmers, who commonly grow traditional medium- and long-duration (5–11 months) landraces. Short-duration pigeon peas (3–4 months) suitable for multiple cropping have recently been developed. Traditionally, the use of such input as fertilizers, weeding, irrigation, and pesticides is minimal, so present yield levels are low (average = 700 kg/ha or 620 lb/acre). Greater attention is now being given to managing the crop because it is in high demand at remunerative prices.

Pigeon peas are very drought-resistant and can be grown in areas with less than 650 mm annual rainfall. With the maize crop failing three out of five years in drought-prone areas of Kenya, a consortium led by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) aimed to promote the pigeon pea as a drought-resistant, nutritious alternative crop. [73]

Nitrogen Fixation

Legumes, which provide highly nutritious products and contribute to soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, are one of the most important crops in mixed crop-livestock systems [74] . Cajanus cajan is an important legume crop with a high N-fixation ability (79 % N derived from the atmosphere) [70] . Plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), together with strains of Rhizobium, can enhance growth and nitrogen fixation in pigeon pea by colonizing thenselves in the plant nodules [75] . These bioinoculants can be added as a single species but also as combined communities. Using a single bioinoculant shows benefits, but mixed communitites of different bioinoculatns have a greater positive impact on nodulation, plant dry mass, as well as shoot and root length [70] [76] . These different community species have different functions for the pigeon pea:

BioinoculantFunction
Azotobacter chroococcum promotes plant growth as a biofertilizer [77]
Bacillus megaterium produces nematode-targeting antibiotics and potentially influencing cytokinin signaling and supports the nitrogen yield of the plant especially during flowering and maturity stages [77] [70] [76]
Pseudomonas fluorescens produces bioactive metabolites and siderophores that combat plant pathogens and supports the denitrification process [77] [70]
Trichoderma harzianum promotes soil health by production of enzymes and secondary metabolites that enhibit harmful soilborne pathogens and nutrient cycling by promoting root development [70] [76]

Pests and diseases

Pigeon pea is affected by a variety of pests and insects that can significantly impact crop yield and quality. They can infest the plant from seedling stage till harvest, therefore pests and diseas are the primary cause for low yields. [78] The major pests are moths include the gram pod borer ( Helicoverpa armigera ), which causes defoliation and pod damage; the blue butterfly ( Lampides boeticus ), which infests buds, flowers, and young pods; and the spotted pod borer ( Maruca vitrata ), known for webbing together infested pods and flowers. [79] [80] [81] The tur pod bug ( Clavigralla gibbosa ) is another significant pest of pigeon pea, causing substantial damage to pods and seeds. [82] Current resistance efforts focus on breeding pigeon pea varieties with enhanced resistance to these pests. However, the presence of multiple pest species and the variability in pest pressure across regions pose challenges to achieving consistent resistance. [83] Effective management techniques include integrated pest management (IPM) strategies such as crop rotation, intercropping with non-host plants, timely sowing, and the use of biological control agents like parasitoids and predators. [84] Chemical control measures, including the application of insecticides like neem-based products and synthetic pyrethroids, are also employed when necessary. [83]

Common Diseases of Pigeon Pea: [83]

  1. Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium udum) [82]
  2. Dry Root Rot ( Macrophomina phaseolina ) [85]
  3. Phytophthora blight ( Phytophthora drechsleri ) [78]
  4. Alternaria Leaf Spot ( Alternaria alternata ) [86]
  5. Powdery Mildew ( Leveillula taurica ) [87]
  6. Sterility Mosaic Disease (Pigeon pea sterility mosaic virus) [88]
  7. Yellow Mosaic Virus ( Mungbean yellow mosaic virus ) [83]

Breeding

Pigeonpea is unique among legumes in that its flowers support both cross-pollination and self-pollination. The bright, nectar-rich flowers attract pollinating insects, allowing natural outcrossing, which averages about 20% but varies with location due to pollinator populations. This level of outcrossing can lead to genetic contamination of parental lines and complicate the selection of lines by reducing the homozygosity of progeny. To mitigate these effects, breeders use techniques such as enclosing flowers in muslin bags or nets to prevent insect pollination. However, natural outcrossing also results in genetically diverse landraces and requires two to three generations of selfing before parental lines can be used in hybridisation programmes. [89]

Over 50 years of pigeonpea breeding has resulted in genetic improvements, disease-resistant varieties, a reduction in crop maturity from 300 to less than 90 days, and the introduction of the first legume hybrid technology, which has increased yields by 30-50%. Despite these advances, yield per unit area has remained stable, with improved stability and diversification for farmers. [90]

John Spence, a botanist and politician from Trinidad and Tobago, developed several varieties of dwarf pigeon peas which can be harvested by machine, instead of by hand. [91]

Genome sequence

The pigeon pea is the first seed legume plant to have its complete genome sequenced. The sequencing was first accomplished by a group of 31 Indian scientists from the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. It was then followed by a global research partnership, the International Initiative for Pigeon pea Genomics (IIPG), led by ICRISAT with partners such as BGI–Shenzhen (China), US research laboratories like University of Georgia, University of California-Davis, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, and National Centre for Genome Resources, European research institutes like the National University of Ireland Galway. It also received support from the CGIAR Generation Challenge Program, US National Science Foundation and in-kind contribution from the collaborating research institutes. [92] [93] It is the first time that a CGIAR-supported research center such as ICRISAT led the genome sequencing of a food crop. There was a controversy over this as CGIAR did not partner with a national team of scientists and broke away from the Indo American Knowledge Initiative to start their own sequencing in parallel. [94]

The 616 mature microRNAs and 3919 long non-codingRNAs sequences were identified in the genome of pigeon pea. [95]

Dehulling

Kenyans shelling pigeon peas Shelling pigeonpeas, Kenya.jpg
Kenyans shelling pigeon peas

Various methodologies exist in order to remove the pulse from its shell. In earlier days hand pounding was common. Several traditional methods are used that can be broadly classified under two categories: the wet method and the dry method. The Wet method Involves water soaking, sun drying and dehulling. The Dry method Involves oil/water application, drying in the sun, and dehulling. Depending on the magnitude of operation, large-scale commercial dehulling of large quantities of pigeon pea into its deskinned, split version, known as toor dal in Hindi, is done in mechanically operated mills. [96] [97]

Uses

Culinary use

Pigeon peas are both a food crop (dried peas, flour, or green vegetable peas) and a forage/cover crop. In combination with cereals, pigeon peas make a well-balanced meal and hence are favored by nutritionists as an essential ingredient for balanced diets. The dried peas may be sprouted briefly, then cooked, for a flavor different from the green or dried peas. Sprouting also enhances the digestibility of dried pigeon peas via the reduction of indigestible sugars that would otherwise remain in the cooked dried peas. [98]

Africa

A bowl of Cape Verdean fixon Kongu Sao Filipe-Plat de petits pois.jpg
A bowl of Cape Verdean fixon Kongu

In Cape Verde they make a soup with the dried pigeon peas called feijão Congo, after its own name, made with dried pigeon peas in a similar manner to Brazilian feijoada. [99]

In Kenya and throughout the Swahili-speaking region of East Africa, pigeon peas are utilized in dishes such as mbaazi na mahamri , that is usually served for breakfast. [100] [101]

In the Enugu state of Nigeria, and igbo dish called Ẹchịcha or Achịcha is made with palm oil, cocoyam, and seasoning. [102] It is also similar to other dishes from the state such as ayarya ji and fio-fio. [103] [104] [105]

In Ethiopia, the pods, the young shoots and leaves, are cooked and eaten. [106]

Asia

Dal/pappu and rice, the twice-daily staple meal for most people in India and the Indian subcontinent Dal Fry Tadka, Cumin Rice, Roasted Papad on the side.jpg
Dal/pappu and rice, the twice-daily staple meal for most people in India and the Indian subcontinent

In India, it is one of the most popular pulses, being an important source of protein in a mostly vegetarian diet. It is the primary accompaniment to rice or roti and has the status of staple food throughout the length and breadth of India. In regions where it grows, fresh young pods are eaten as a vegetable in dishes such as sambar.

In the Western Visayas region of the Philippines, pigeon peas are the main ingredient of a very popular dish called "KBL" - an acronym for "Kadyos" (pigeon pea), "Baboy" (pork), and "Langka" (jackfruit). It is a savory soup with rich flavors coming from the pigeon peas, smoked pork preferably the legs or tail, and souring agent called batuan. Raw jackfruit meat is chopped and boiled to soft consistency, and serves as an extender. The violet color of the soup comes from the pigment of the variety commonly grown in the region. [107]

The Americas

In the Caribbean coast of Colombia, such as the Atlántico department of Colombia, the sopa de guandú con carne salada (or simply "gandules") is made with pigeon peas, yam, plantain, yuca, and spices. [108] During the week of Semana santa a sweet is made out of pigeon peas called dulce de guandules which is made by mashed and sweetened pigeon peas with origins in the maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. [109] [110] [111]

In the Dominican Republic, a dish made of rice and green pigeon peas called moro de guandules is a traditional holiday food. It is also consumed as guandules guisados, which is a savoury stew with coconut and squash served with white rice. A variety of sancocho is also made based on green pigeon peas that includes poultry, pork, beef, yams, yucca, squash, plantain and others. Dominicans have a high regard for this legume and it is consumed widely. [112]

In Panama, pigeon peas are used in a dish called Arroz con guandú y coco or "rice with pigeon peas and coconut" traditionally prepared and consumed during the end of year holidays. [113]

In Puerto Rico, arroz con gandules is made with rice and pigeon peas and sofrito which is a traditional dish, especially during Christmas season. [114] Pigeon peas can also be made in to a stew called asopao de gandules, with plantain balls. [115]

Jamaica also uses pigeon peas instead of kidney beans in their rice and peas dish, especially during the Christmas season. [116]

Trinidad and Tobago and Grenada have their own variant, called pelau , which includes either beef or chicken, and occasionally pumpkin and pieces of cured pig tail. [117]

Unlike in some other parts of the Greater Caribbean, in The Bahamas pigeon peas are used in dried form, light brown in color to make the heartier, heavier, signature Bahamian staple dish "Peas 'n Rice." [118]

Oceania

In Hawaii they are used to make a dish called gandule rice, [119] also called godule rice, [120] gundule rice, [121] and ganduddy rice [122] originates on the island from the Puerto Rican community with historic ties to the island and is prepared in a similar manner to that of traditional Puerto Rican arroz con gandules. [123]

Other uses

Agricultural

Harvested pods of pigeon peas in Benin. Poids d'engole murs dans les gousses depose dans 1 plastiques jaune au Benin.jpg
Harvested pods of pigeon peas in Benin.

It is an important ingredient of animal feed used in West Africa, especially in Nigeria, where it is also grown. Leaves, pods, seeds and the residues of seed processing are used to feed all kinds of livestock. [124]

In the Congo pigeon peas are utilized as one of the main food forest and soil improvement crops after using a slash-and-burn fire technique called maala. [125]

Pigeon peas are in some areas an important crop for green manure, providing up to 90 kg nitrogen per hectare. [126] The woody stems of pigeon peas can also be used as firewood, fencing, thatch and as a source for rope fiber. [127]

Medicinal

Pigeon pea has been valued for its medicinal properties since prehistoric times in various regions, including Africa, Egypt and Asia. Today, different countries use different parts of the plant to treat a range of diseases as an alternative medicine. In the Republic of Congo the Kongo, Lari, and Dondo people use the sap of the leaves as an eyedrop for epilepsy. [128] In Nigeria the leaves are used to treat malaria, while in India they are used to treat diabetes, stomach tumours and wounds. In Oman, pigeon pea is used to treat chronic diseases, and in traditional Chinese medicine it is used to relieve pain and control intestinal worms. In Africa, the seeds are used to treat hepatitis and measles. The widespread traditional medicinal use of the plant is attributed to its rich content of phenolic compounds, which have antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic and hypoglycaemic effects. The leaves also contain flavonoids, terpenoids, essential oils and coumarin, which further enhance its therapeutic potential in the fight against disease. [129] There are different studies looking at how the medicinal compounds of pigeon pea could be used in future. One study, using rats, found that a pigeonpea beverage could be used as an anti-diabetic functional drink. This drink would help to reduce plasma glucose and total cholesterol levels and increase plasma antioxidant status. Therefore, it could be used in future as an alternative strategy to maintain plasma glucose and cholesterol at normal levels and help prevent diabetes complications. [130] Furthermore, pigeon pea could be used as a fermented food as this would increase its antioxidant levels and therefore, have an antiatherosclerotic effect. This would help to improve systolic blood pressure as well as diastolic blood pressure. This benefits cardiovascular health and could be developed as a new dietary supplement or functional food that prevents hypertension. [131]

In Madagascar the branches have been used as a teeth cleaning twig. [132] [133]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bean</span> Seed of one of several genera of the plant family Fabaceae

A bean is the seed of any plant in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying, but fresh beans are also sold. Most beans are traditionally soaked and boiled, but they can be cooked in many different ways, including frying and baking, and are used in many traditional dishes throughout the world. The unripe seedpods of some varieties are also eaten whole as green beans or edamame, but fully ripened beans contain toxins like phytohemagglutinin and require cooking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finger millet</span> Species of grass

Finger millet is an annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and semiarid areas in Africa and Asia. It is a tetraploid and self-pollinating species probably evolved from its wild relative Eleusine africana.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peanut</span> Legume cultivated as a grain and oil crop

The peanut, also known as the groundnut, goober (US), goober pea, pindar (US) or monkey nut (UK), is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics by small and large commercial producers, both as grain legume and as an oil crop. Atypically among legumes, peanut pods develop underground leading botanist Carl Linnaeus to name peanuts hypogaea, which means "under the earth".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chickpea</span> Species of flowering plant with edible seeds in the family Fabaceae

The chickpea or chick pea is an annual legume of the family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae, cultivated for its edible seeds. Its different types are variously known as gram or Bengal gram; chhola, chhana, chana, or channa; garbanzo or garbanzo bean; or Egyptian pea. It is one of the earliest cultivated legumes, the oldest archaeological evidence of which was found in Syria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pea</span> Species of flowering plant with edible seeds in the family Fabaceae

Pea is a pulse, vegetable or fodder crop, but the word often refers to the seed or sometimes the pod of this flowering plant species. Carl Linnaeus gave the species the scientific name Pisum sativum in 1753. Some sources now treat it as Lathyrus oleraceus; however the need and justification for the change is disputed. Each pod contains several seeds (peas), which can have green or yellow cotyledons when mature. Botanically, pea pods are fruit, since they contain seeds and develop from the ovary of a (pea) flower. The name is also used to describe other edible seeds from the Fabaceae such as the pigeon pea, the cowpea, the seeds from several species of Lathyrus and is used as a compound form for example Sturt's desert pea.

<i>Cajanus</i> Genus of legumes

The genus Cajanus is a member of the plant family Fabaceae. There are 37 species, mainly distributed across Africa, Asia and Australasia.

<i>Vicia faba</i> Species of plant in the pea and bean family Fabaceae

Vicia faba, commonly known as the broad bean, fava bean, or faba bean, is a species of vetch, a flowering plant in the pea and bean family Fabaceae. It is widely cultivated as a crop for human consumption, and also as a cover crop. Varieties with smaller, harder seeds that are fed to horses or other animals are called field bean, tic bean or tick bean. Horse bean, Vicia faba var. equinaPers., is a variety recognized as an accepted name. This legume is very common in Southern European, Northern European, East Asian, Latin American and North African cuisines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Legume</span> Plant in the family Fabaceae

Legumes are plants in the family Fabaceae, or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as a dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called pulses. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, but also as livestock forage and silage, and as soil-enhancing green manure. Well-known legumes include beans, chickpeas, peanuts, lentils, lupins, mesquite, carob, tamarind, alfalfa, and clover. Legumes produce a botanically unique type of fruit – a simple dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel and usually dehisces on two sides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mung bean</span> Species of plant

The mung bean or green gram is a plant species in the legume family. The mung bean is mainly cultivated in East, Southeast and South Asia. It is used as an ingredient in both savoury and sweet dishes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cowpea</span> Species of plant

The cowpea is an annual herbaceous legume from the genus Vigna. Its tolerance for sandy soil and low rainfall have made it an important crop in the semiarid regions across Africa and Asia. It requires very few inputs, as the plant's root nodules are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen, making it a valuable crop for resource-poor farmers and well-suited to intercropping with other crops. The whole plant is used as forage for animals, with its use as cattle feed likely responsible for its name.

<i>Vigna subterranea</i> Species of plant

Vigna subterranea is a member of the family Fabaceae. Its name is derived from the Bambara ethnic group. The plant originated in West Africa. As a food and source of income, the Bambara groundnut is considered to be the third most important leguminous crop in those African countries where it is grown, after peanut and cowpea. The crop is mainly cultivated, sold and processed by women, and is, thus, particularly valuable for female subsistence farmers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics</span> International research organization

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is an international organisation which conducts agricultural research for rural development, headquartered in Patancheru, Hyderabad, Telangana, India, with several regional centres and research stations . It was founded in 1972 by a consortium of organisations convened by the Ford- and the Rockefeller- foundations. Its charter was signed by the FAO and the UNDP.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Winged bean</span> Species of legume plant

The winged bean, also known as cigarillas, goa bean, four-angled bean, four-cornered bean, manila bean, princess bean, star bean, kamrangi bean, pea, dragon bean, is a tropical herbaceous legume plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nagendra Kumar Singh</span> Indian agricultural scientist (born 1958)

Nagendra Kumar Singh is an Indian agricultural scientist. He is presently a National Professor Dr. B.P. Pal Chair and JC Bose National Fellow at ICAR-National Institute for Plant Biotechnology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. He was born in a small village Rajapur in the Mau District of Uttar Pradesh, India. He is known for his research in the area of plant genomics, genetics, molecular breeding and biotechnology, particularly for his contribution in the decoding of rice, tomato, wheat, pigeon pea, jute and mango genomes and understanding of wheat seed storage proteins and their effect on wheat quality. He has made significant advances in comparative analysis of rice and wheat genomes and mapping of genes for yield, salt tolerance and basmati quality traits in rice. He is one of the highest cited agricultural scientists from India for the last five years.

The Legume Information System (LIS) is legume sciences portal specifically for legume breeders and researchers, established and supported by the Agricultural Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture. The mission of the Legume Information System is "to facilitate discoveries and crop improvement in the legumes," in particular to improve crop yields, their nutritional value, and our understanding of basic legume science.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rajeev Kumar Varshney</span> Indian geneticist (born 1973)

Rajeev Kumar Varshney is an Indian agricultural scientist, specializing in genomics, genetics, molecular breeding and capacity building in developing countries. Varshney is currently serving as Director, Western Australian State Agricultural Biotechnology Center; Director, Centre for Crop & Food Innovation; and International Chair in Agriculture & Food Security with the Food Futures Institute at Murdoch University, Australia since Feb 2022. Before joining Murdoch University, Australia he served International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), a global agriculture R&D institute, for more than 16 years in different scientific and research leadership roles including Research Program Director for three global research programs– Grain Legumes, Genetic Gains and Accelerated Crop Improvement Program. He has the onus of establishing and nurturing the Center of Excellence in Genomics & Systems Biology (CEGSB), a globally recognized center for genomics research at ICRISAT that made impacts on improving agriculture and development of human resources in several countries including India, China, Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Nigeria, Ghana, Mali, Senegal, Burkina Faso, etc. Varshney holds Adjunct/Honorary/Visiting Professor positions at 10 academic institutions in Australia, China, Ghana, Hong Kong and India, including The University of Western Australia, University of Queensland, West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement, University of Hyderabad, Chaudhary Charan Singh University and Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University.

<i>Cajanus scarabaeoides</i> Species of flowering plant

Cajanus scarabaeoides is a flowering plant in the genus Cajanus. Of the 32 different species within the genus Cajanus, only one, C. cajan (pigeonpea), is cultivated. Cajanus scarabaeoides is the closest wild relative to C. cajan, and is one of the easiest wild species to cross with pigeonpea cultivars. C. scarabaeoides is found naturally in both temperate and tropical zones around the globe. This species has higher levels of drought tolerance, is found to have greater protein content, and has higher levels of resistance to insect pests compared to cultivated types. These genetic traits can be crossed with C. cajan to improve the crop's productivity. For subsistence farmers, this can reduce economic losses and drastically improve overall crop yield.

<i>Cajanus kerstingii</i> Species of legume

Cajanus kerstingii is a widely ignored shrub found mostly in open savannah conditions across western Africa. It is closely related to the widely utilised Cajanus cajan, otherwise known as pigeon pea. Cajanus kerstingii can be consumed by humans as a cereal, pulse, fibre or forage. Unfortunately, very little data exists for this plant, but "one may reasonably expect it to be of value".

<i>Callosobruchus</i> Genus of beetles

Callosobruchus is a genus of beetles in the family Chrysomelidae, the leaf beetles. It is in the subfamily Bruchinae, the bean weevils. Many beetles in the genus are well known as economically important pests that infest stored foodstuffs.

<i>Clavigralla gibbosa</i> Species of true bug

Clavigralla gibbosa, the tur pod bug, is a species of leaf-footed bug in the family Coreidae. It is found in India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar, where it is a pest of pigeon pea.

References

  1. ↑ "Cajanus cajan". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 2019-05-19.
  2. ↑ Upadhyaya, Hari D.; Sharma, Shivali; Reddy, K.N.; Saxena, Rachit; Varshney, Rajeev K.; Gowda, C.L. Laxmipathi (2013). "Pigeonpea" (PDF). Genetic and Genomic Resources of Grain Legume Improvement. pp. 181–202. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-397935-3.00008-6. ISBN   978-0-12-397935-3.
  3. ↑ Kingwell-Banham, Eleanor; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2014). "Pigeon Pea: Origins and Development". Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. pp. 5941–5944. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_2320. ISBN   978-1-4419-0426-3.
  4. ↑ "Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth): branch with flowers and pods, separate flower, sectioned flower and seed. Coloured line engraving". Wellcome Collection. Retrieved 2022-05-12.
  5. ↑ "Cajanus cajan etymology". Un Mondo Ecosostenibile. 2018-01-14. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
  6. ↑ "How the Pigeon Pea Became Such a Kitchen Staple Around the World". Matador Network. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  7. ↑ "Pigeon peas: A sweet summer addition to the edible garden". Los Angeles Times. 2013-08-20. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  8. ↑ "Angola pea etymology".
  9. ↑ "Congo pea". TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  10. ↑ "gram in Hindi - gram meaning in Hindi". www.hindlish.com. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  11. ↑ Kinhoégbè, Géofroy; Djèdatin, Gustave; Loko, Laura Estelle Yêyinou; Favi, Abraham Gnimansou; Adomou, Aristide; Agbangla, Clément; Dansi, Alexandre (December 2020). "On-farm management and participatory evaluation of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan [L.] Millspaugh) diversity across the agro-ecological zones of the Republic of Benin". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 16 (1): 24. doi: 10.1186/s13002-020-00378-0 . PMC   7218501 . PMID   32404139.
  12. ↑ "Congo bean - Arca del Gusto". Slow Food Foundation. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  13. ↑ "Food and drink in Comoros". World Travel Guide. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  14. ↑ "Malagasy Dictionary and Madagascar Encyclopedia : amberivatry". en.mondemalgache.org. Archived from the original on 2022-11-01. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  15. ↑ "Dagbani » Download" . Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  16. ↑ "Adowa Beans". techrisemedia. 2021-12-03. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  17. ↑ Iwu, Maurice M. (2014-02-04). Pharmacognostical Profile of Selected Medicinal Plants. Routledge Handbooks Online. doi:10.1201/b16292-4. ISBN   978-1-4665-7197-6.
  18. ↑ "Nandolo in English. Nandolo Meaning and Chichewa to English Translation". www.indifferentlanguages.com. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  19. ↑ Obidike, Jennifer (2020-08-01). "Pigeon peas (fio-fio): 6 Proven Health Benefits and Nutrition". Healthful Wonders. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  20. ↑ Lois (2014-02-10). "The many names of the pigeon pea…". Lois Elsden. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  21. ↑ "Hausa Names for Plants and Trees". yumpu.com (in Italian). Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  22. ↑ "waken-turawa" . Retrieved 2022-05-13.[ permanent dead link ]
  23. ↑ "Pigeon pea Archives". The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  24. ↑ "Pigeon peas and Nutrition - Tasty 9ja - Benefits of Fiofio". Tasty Nigerian Recipes. 2020-07-08. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  25. ↑ "Agricultural plant names in Sudan".
  26. ↑ "Pigeon pea in Sudan".
  27. ↑ "Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change" (PDF).
  28. ↑ "Cajanus cajan". www.tropicalforages.info. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  29. ↑ "Kadyos (Kadios): Tagalog-English Dictionary Online". TAGALOG LANG. 2021-05-08. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  30. ↑ "Kadios or pigeon pea in Filipino". 27 July 2010.
  31. ↑ "What Are Gandules?". CulinaryLore. 2015-01-12. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
  32. ↑ "Gracias a las manos africanas". listindiario.com (in Spanish). 2011-08-27. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
  33. ↑ "Culture: How the African Diaspora Left It's Mark on the DR". Una Vaina Bien Spanish. 2016-08-15. Archived from the original on 2021-08-03. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
  34. ↑ "Cocina Dominicana – Anexo 2". mipais.jmarcano.com. 2020-10-21. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
  35. ↑ "African Origin of Papiamentu Plant names". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
  36. ↑ "Jamaican Ingredient: Gungo Peas – Cook Like a Jamaican". cooklikeajamaican.com. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
  37. ↑ "PlantFiles: Cajanus Species, Congo Pea, Gungo Pea, Pigeon Pea Bush, Red Gram". Dave's Garden. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
  38. 1 2 Carney, J. A. and Rosomoff, R. N. (2009) In the Shadow of Slavery. Africa’s Botanical legacy in the Atlantic World. Berkeley: University of California Press
  39. ↑ "Pigeon peas (Pois d'Angole)". AZ Martinique. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  40. ↑ Dictionnaire pratique du créole de Guadeloupe. Suivi d'un Index français-créole (in French). Karthala Editions. 2009-02-01. ISBN   978-2-8111-3020-6.
  41. ↑ Yurnet-Thomas, Mirta (2004). A Taste of Haiti. Hippocrene Books. ISBN   978-0-7818-0998-6.
  42. ↑ Instituut voor de Nederlandse taal (2022-06-04). "Wandoe". etymologiebank.nl (in Dutch). Instituut voor de Nederlandse taal.
  43. ↑ Instituut voor de Nederlandse taal (2022-06-04). "Pesi". etymologiebank.nl (in Dutch). Instituut voor de Nederlandse taal.
  44. ↑ "Pigeon Peas". FoodPrint. Retrieved 2022-05-05.
  45. ↑ "Cajanus kerstingii (Flora of the WAP complex - legumes) · iNaturalist". iNaturalist. Retrieved 2022-05-05.
  46. ↑ "Cajanus scarabaeoides" (PDF).
  47. ↑ "Cajanus cajanifolius (Haines) Maesen | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 2022-05-05.
  48. ↑ "Pigeon pea history and origin". www.ikisan.com. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  49. ↑ "Winrock International - Cajanus cajan: It's More than Just a Pulse Crop". winrock.org. Retrieved 2022-05-05.
  50. ↑ "History of the cultivation and domestication of Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea)" (PDF). uidaho.edu.
  51. ↑ Van der Maeson, L. J. G. (1995). "Pigeonpea Cajanus cajan", pp. 251–5 in Smartt, J. and Simmonds, N. W. (eds.), Evolution of Crop Plants. Essex: Longman.
  52. ↑ Fuller, Dorian; Korisettar, Ravi; Venkatasubbaiah, P.C.; Jones, MartinK. (June 2004). "Early plant domestications in southern India: some preliminary archaeobotanical results". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 13 (2): 115. Bibcode:2004VegHA..13..115F. doi:10.1007/s00334-004-0036-9. S2CID   8108444.
  53. ↑ Fuller, D. Q.; Harvey, E. L. (2006). "The archaeobotany of Indian pulses: Identification, processing and evidence for cultivation". Environmental Archaeology. 11 (2): 219–246. Bibcode:2006EnvAr..11..219F. doi:10.1179/174963106x123232. S2CID   59135495.
  54. ↑ Fuller, Dorian. "Across the Indian Ocean: the prehistoric movement of plants and animals" (PDF).
  55. ↑ "USDA - National Agricultural Statistics Service - Puerto Rico - Ag History of Pigeon Peas". www.nass.usda.gov. Retrieved 2022-05-05.
  56. ↑ "Cajanus cajan". Plant Pono. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  57. ↑ Duff, Diana (2020-02-02). "Plant of the Month: Pidgeon pea, a multipurpose tree for a small garden". West Hawaii Today. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  58. ↑ "Filipinos in Hawaii, UHM Center for Philippine Studies". www.hawaii.edu. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  59. ↑ "How The First Puerto Ricans Arrived On Hawai'i Island | Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños". centropr-archive.hunter.cuny.edu. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  60. ↑ "Pigeon peas hawaii" (PDF).
  61. 1 2 United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  62. 1 2 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154 . Retrieved 2024-12-05.
  63. ↑ "Nutrition Facts and Analysis for Pigeon peas (red gram), mature seeds, raw"
  64. ↑ Bressani, Ricardo; Gómez-Brenes, Roberto A.; Elías, Luiz G. (March 1986). "Calidad nutricional de la proteína de gandul, tierno y maduro, y su valor suplementario a los cereales" [Nutritional quality of pigeon pea protein, immature and ripe, and its supplementary value for cereals]. Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición (in Spanish). 36 (1): 108–116. OCLC   69765297. PMID   3632193.
  65. ↑ "National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28". United States Department of Agriculture: Agricultural Research Service.
  66. ↑ "Nutrition facts, calories in food, labels, nutritional information and analysis". NutritionData.com.
  67. ↑ "USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6" (PDF). USDA. Dec 2007.
  68. 1 2 "Nutritional Effects of Food Processing". NutritionData.com.
  69. ↑ Bilello, Stanley (2016-10-10). 21st Century Homestead: Nitrogen-Fixing Crops. Lulu.com. ISBN   978-1-365-45290-1.
  70. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fatokimi, Esther Olawumi; Tanimonure, Victoria Adeyemi (2021). "Analysis of the current situation and future outlooks for pigeon pea (Cajanus Cajan) production in Oyo State, Nigeria: A Markov Chain model approach". Journal of Agriculture and Food Research. 6: 100218. doi: 10.1016/j.jafr.2021.100218 . ISSN   2666-1543.
  71. ↑ "Products (Pigeon peas)". amago-tanzania.com. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  72. ↑ "pigeon pea cultivation". asapglobe.com. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  73. ↑ "|| ICRISAT || Impact". www.icrisat.org. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  74. ↑ Ramya, S.; Pandove, Gulab (2019-05-24). "Integrated nutrient management in cowpea with the application of microbial inoculants". Legume Research. 44 (3): 243–251. doi:10.18805/LR-4102. ISSN   0976-0571.
  75. ↑ Tilak, K. V. B. R.; Ranganayaki, N.; Manoharachari, C. (February 2006). "Synergistic effects of plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria and Rhizobium on nodulation and nitrogen fixation by pigeonpea ( Cajanus cajan )". European Journal of Soil Science. 57 (1): 67–71. Bibcode:2006EuJSS..57...67T. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.2006.00771.x. ISSN   1351-0754.
  76. 1 2 3 Gupta, Rashi; Bisaria, Virendra S.; Sharma, Shilpi (2016-07-01). "Response of rhizospheric bacterial communities of Cajanus cajan to application of bioinoculants and chemical fertilizers: A comparative study". European Journal of Soil Biology. 75: 107–114. Bibcode:2016EJSB...75..107G. doi:10.1016/j.ejsobi.2016.02.008. ISSN   1164-5563.
  77. 1 2 3 Sharma, Richa; Shrivas, Vijay Laxmi; Sharma, Shilpi (2021-03-01). "Effect of substitution of chemical fertilizer by bioinoculants on plant performance and rhizospheric bacterial community: case study with Cajanus cajan". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 52 (1): 373–386. doi:10.1007/s42770-020-00418-7. ISSN   1678-4405. PMC   7966636 . PMID   33415718.
  78. 1 2 Pande, Suresh; Sharma, Mamta; Naga Mangla, U.; Ghosh, Raju; Sundaresan, G. (2011-08-01). "Phytophthora blight of Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.]: An updating review of biology, pathogenicity and disease management". Crop Protection. 30 (8): 951–957. Bibcode:2011CrPro..30..951P. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2011.03.031.
  79. ↑ Shanower, T. G.; Romeis, J.; Minja, E. M. (1999-01-01). "Insect Pests of Pigeonpea and Their Management". Annual Review of Entomology. 44: 77–96. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.44.1.77. ISSN   0066-4170. PMID   15012370.
  80. ↑ Volp, Trevor M; Zalucki, Myron P; Furlong, Michael J (2024-04-02). "Pigeon pea crop stage strongly influences plant susceptibility to Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)". Journal of Economic Entomology. 117 (3): 973–981. doi:10.1093/jee/toae050. ISSN   0022-0493. PMC   11163456 . PMID   38564410.
  81. ↑ Jagadish, K. S.; Singh, Ranvir; Ghosh, Pritha; Domkak, Korrakot (2019), Kumar Chakravarthy, Akshay; Selvanarayanan, Venkatesan (eds.), "Screening Pigeon Pea, Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp., Against Major Insect Pests", Experimental Techniques in Host-Plant Resistance, Singapore: Springer, pp. 97–105, doi:10.1007/978-981-13-2652-3_12, ISBN   978-981-13-2652-3 , retrieved 2024-11-10
  82. 1 2 Chitralekha; Lal, Roshan; Verma, Tarun; Prince; Lalita (2017-09-10). "Biology of Tur Pod Bug, Clavigralla gibbosa Spinola on Pigeonpea Variety Manak". International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 6 (9): 1504–1509. doi:10.20546/ijcmas.2017.609.183. ISSN   2319-7706.
  83. 1 2 3 4 Keerthi, M. C.; Manjunatha, L.; Bhargavi, H. A.; Mahesha, H. S.; Puyam, Anita; Dasgupta, Debarshi (2022), Kole, Chittaranjan (ed.), "Development of Biotic-Stress Resistant Pigeonpea", Genomic Designing for Biotic Stress Resistant Pulse Crops, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 309–351, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-91043-3_6, ISBN   978-3-030-91043-3 , retrieved 2024-12-01
  84. ↑ Raj, S. K.; Singh, Rachana; Srivastava, Ashish; Srivastava, Suchi (2020), Elmer, Wade H.; McGrath, Margaret; McGovern, Robert J. (eds.), "Diseases of Pigeon Pea", Handbook of Vegetable and Herb Diseases, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–32, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35512-8_25-1, ISBN   978-3-030-35512-8 , retrieved 2024-12-01
  85. ↑ Basandrai, Ashwani K.; Pandey, Abhay K.; Somta, Prakit; Basandrai, Daisy (2021-08-01). "Macrophomina phaseolina –host interface: Insights into an emerging dry root rot pathogen of mungbean and urdbean, and its mitigation strategies". Plant Pathology. 70 (6): 1263–1275. doi:10.1111/ppa.13378. ISSN   0032-0862.
  86. ↑ Sharma, M.; Ghosh, R.; Mangla, U. N.; Saxena, K. B.; Pande, S. (2012-06-01). "Alternaria tenuissima Causing Alternaria Blight on Pigeonpea in India". Plant Disease. 96 (6): 907. doi:10.1094/PDIS-01-12-0060-PDN. ISSN   0191-2917. PMID   30727370.
  87. ↑ Fondevilla, S.; Rubiales, D. (2012-04-01). "Powdery mildew control in pea. A review". Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 32 (2): 401–409. Bibcode:2012AgSD...32..401F. doi:10.1007/s13593-011-0033-1. ISSN   1773-0155.
  88. ↑ Manjunatha, Lakshamaiah; Ramappa, Honnaghatta Krishnappa; Puyam, Anita; Srinivasa, Nagappa (2021-12-01). "Pigeonpea Sterility Mosaic Virus: a threatening virus of pigeonpea, current scenario and its control". Indian Phytopathology. 74 (4): 885–891. doi:10.1007/s42360-021-00397-1. ISSN   2248-9800.
  89. ↑ Saxena, K. B. (June 2008). "Genetic Improvement of Pigeon Pea — A Review". Tropical Plant Biology. 1 (2): 159–178. doi:10.1007/s12042-008-9014-1. ISSN   1935-9756.
  90. ↑ Saxena, Kulbhushan; Bohra, Abhishek; Choudhary, Arbind K.; Sultana, Rafat; Sharma, Mamta; Pazhamala, Lekha T.; Saxena, Rachit K. (February 2021). Xu, Pei (ed.). "The alternative breeding approaches for improving yield gains and stress response in pigeonpea ( Cajanus cajan )". Plant Breeding. 140 (1): 74–86. doi:10.1111/pbr.12863. ISSN   0179-9541.
  91. ↑ "John Spence (1929) Plant Pathologist". National Institute of Higher Education, Research, Science and Technology . Archived from the original on 2015-02-25. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
  92. ↑ "ICRISAT-led global team cracks pigeonpea genome". Archived from the original on 2020-04-07. Retrieved 2014-12-21.
  93. ↑ Varshney, RK; Chen, W; Li, Y; et al. (January 2012). "Draft genome sequence of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), an orphan legume crop of resource-poor farmers". Nat. Biotechnol. 30 (1): 83–9. doi: 10.1038/nbt.2022 . PMID   22057054.
  94. ↑ Singh, NK; Gupta, DK; Jayaswal, PK; Mahato, AK; Dutta, S; Singh, S; Bhutani, S; Dogra, V; Singh, BP; Kumawat, G; Pal, JK; Pandit, A; Singh, A; Rawal, H; Kumar, A; Rama Prashat, G; Khare, A; Yadav, R; Raje, RS; Singh, MN; Datta, S; Fakrudin, B; Wanjari, KB; Kansal, R; Dash, PK; Jain, PK; Bhattacharya, R; Gaikwad, K; Mohapatra, T; Srinivasan, R; Sharma, TR (2012). "The first draft of the pigeonpea genome sequence". J. Plant Biochem. Biotechnol. 21 (1): 98–112. doi:10.1007/s13562-011-0088-8. PMC   3886394 . PMID   24431589.
  95. ↑ Nithin, Chandran; Thomas, Amal; Basak, Jolly; Bahadur, Ranjit Prasad (December 2017). "Genome-wide identification of miRNAs and lncRNAs in Cajanus cajan". BMC Genomics. 18 (1): 878. doi: 10.1186/s12864-017-4232-2 . PMC   5688659 . PMID   29141604.
  96. ↑ "Harvesting And Storage". Archived from the original on 2020-04-07. Retrieved 2017-11-24.
  97. ↑ Pigeonpea in Eastern and Southern Africa Archived 2014-07-18 at the Wayback Machine , ICRISAT Posted 10 October 2012. Downloaded 26 January 2014.
  98. ↑ Akporhonor, EE; Egwaikhide, PA; Eguavoen, IO (31 October 2006). "Effect of sprouting on invitro digestibility of some locally consumed leguminous seeds". Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management. 10 (3). doi: 10.4314/jasem.v10i3.17320 .
  99. ↑ "Feijão Congo: Cape Verdean Stewed Peas (ervilha seca)". Crumb-Snatched. 2021-02-20. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  100. ↑ Jammy (2016-03-05). "Swahili Breakfast: Mbaazi and Mahamri". Life in Mombasa. Archived from the original on 2022-05-20. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  101. ↑ "Nairobi - Make Your Own Swahili Breakfast - mbaazi na mahamri". www.heygo.com. 12 May 2020. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  102. ↑ "Achicha Ede (Echicha Ede)". All Nigerian Recipes. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  103. ↑ Onyeakagbu, Adaobi (2021-08-31). "Fio Fio: How to prepare this spicy traditional Enugu dish". Pulse Nigeria. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  104. ↑ "Ayaraya Oka, Pigeon peas, Fiofio and corn - Tasty 9ja". Tasty Nigerian Recipes. 2020-07-08. Archived from the original on 2022-05-13. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  105. ↑ "Ayaraya Ji (Yam And Pigeon Peas)". The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News. 2019-07-28. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  106. ↑ Zemede Asfaw, "Conservation and use of traditional vegetables in Ethiopia" Archived 2012-07-07 at the Wayback Machine , Proceedings of the IPGRI International Workshop on Genetic Resources of Traditional Vegetables in Africa (Nairobi, 29–31 August 1995)
  107. ↑ "KBL – Kadyos, Baboy at Langka" . Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  108. ↑ "Sopa de Guandú | Colombia Buena". 2010-07-13. Archived from the original on 2010-07-13. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  109. ↑ "Recetas EH | Aprenda a preparar tres dulces típicos para la Cuaresma". EL HERALDO (in Spanish). 2 March 2018. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  110. ↑ "El dulce sabor de Palenque". www.eluniversal.com.co (in European Spanish). 2016-10-02. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  111. ↑ "La dulzura de San Basilio de Palenque" (PDF).
  112. ↑ "Pigeon Peas Rice With Sausage (Moro de Gandules y Salchichas)". Hispanic Kitchen. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  113. ↑ Israely, Ruth (June 2016). "Arroz con Guandú y Coco (Rice with Pigeon Peas and Coconut Milk)". Jamie Geller. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  114. ↑ "El Boricua, a bilingual , cultural publication for Puerto Ricans". www.elboricua.com. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  115. ↑ Taylor, David (2021-06-15). "Asopao de Gandules ~ Pigeon Pea Stew". Hispanic Food Network. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  116. ↑ Hidden, Katie (2015-12-20). "Gungo Peas and Rice". Taste the Islands. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  117. ↑ "Pelau – A Popular and Historical Trinidadian Dish - New York Carib News". New York Carib News -. 2022-03-21. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  118. ↑ "Tru Bahamian Must Eats: Peas & Rice". Tru Bahamian Food Tours. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
  119. ↑ "Hawaii Hispanic News - History Of Hispanics in Hawaii". www.hawaiihispanicnews.org. Archived from the original on 2022-05-20. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  120. ↑ "Gondule rice hawaii". www.americastestkitchen.com. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  121. ↑ "Gundule Rice Recipes". SparkRecipes. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  122. ↑ "Puerto Rican Rice & Beans—By Way Of Hawaii". Food52. 2018-07-13. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  123. ↑ "Arroz con Gandules Recipe (Gandule Rice)". PBS Food. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  124. ↑ Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Delagarde R., Bastianelli D., Lebas F., 2017. Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) seeds. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/329
  125. ↑ Bauer, Jean-Martin (2018-05-09). "Food and forests in Congo-Brazzaville". World Food Programme Insight. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  126. ↑ Adu-Gyamfi, Joseph J.; Myaka, Fidelis A.; Sakala, Webster D.; Odgaard, Rie; Vesterager, Jens M.; Høgh-Jensen, Henning (June 2007). "Biological nitrogen fixation and nitrogen and phosphorus budgets in farmer-managed intercrops of maize–pigeonpea in semi-arid southern and eastern Africa". Plant and Soil. 295 (1–2): 127–136. Bibcode:2007PlSoi.295..127A. doi:10.1007/s11104-007-9270-0. S2CID   20000912.
  127. ↑ "Effects of Pre-Treatments on Pigeon Pea Stalk Fibers" (PDF).
  128. ↑ "Prelude Medicinal Plants Database - Browse by reference - HA 05 | Royal Museum for Central Africa - Tervuren - Belgium". www.africamuseum.be. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  129. ↑ Abdulmajid Haji u. a., „Nutritional Composition, Bioactive Compounds, Food Applications, and Health Benefits of Pigeon Pea ( CAJANUS CAJAN L. Millsp.): A Review“, Legume Science 6, Nr. 2 (Juni 2024): e233, https://doi.org/10.1002/leg3.233.
  130. ↑ Ariviani, S, D R Affandi, E Listyaningsih, und S Handajani. „The potential of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) beverage as an anti-diabetic functional drink“. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 102 (Januar 2018): 012054. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/102/1/012054
  131. ↑ Lee, Bao-Hong, Yi-Syuan Lai, und She-Ching Wu. „Antioxidation, Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibition Activity, Nattokinase, and Antihypertension of Bacillus Subtilis (Natto)-Fermented Pigeon Pea“. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis 23, Nr. 4 (Dezember 2015): 750–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2015.06.008.
  132. ↑ Portères, Roland (1974). "Les baguettes végétales mâchées servant de frotte-dents (fin)". Journal d'agriculture traditionnelle et de botanique appliquée. 21 (4): 111–150. doi:10.3406/jatba.1974.3157.
  133. ↑ "AMBREVADES OU POIDS D'ANGOLE". LIDIE OUSSENI-ALI (in French). 2021-09-05. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.