Stereotypy (non-human)

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An elephant exhibiting stereotyped trunk swinging and rocking behaviour Devi AsianElephant SanDiegoZoo 20071230 RockingBehaviour.gif
An elephant exhibiting stereotyped trunk swinging and rocking behaviour

In animal behaviour, stereotypy, stereotypic or stereotyped behaviour has several meanings, leading to ambiguity in the scientific literature. [1] A stereotypy is a term for a group of phenotypic behaviours that are repetitive, morphologically identical and which possess no obvious goal or function. [2] These behaviours have been defined as 'abnormal', as they exhibit themselves solely in animals subjected to barren environments, scheduled or restricted feedings, social deprivation and other cases of frustration, [3] but do not arise in 'normal' animals in their natural environments. [4] These behaviours may be maladaptive, involving self-injury or reduced reproductive success, and in laboratory animals can confound behavioural research. [5] Stereotypical behaviours are thought to be caused ultimately by artificial environments that do not allow animals to satisfy their normal behavioural needs. Rather than refer to the behaviour as abnormal, it has been suggested that it be described as "behaviour indicative of an abnormal environment". [6]

Contents

Stereotyped behaviour can also refer to normal behaviours that show low variation. For example, mammalian chewing cycles or fish capturing prey using suction feeding. Highly stereotyped movements may be due to mechanical constraint (such as the skull of a viper or fish, in which bones are mechanically linked), tight neural control (as in mammalian chewing), or both. The degree of stereotyping may vary markedly between closely related species engaging in the same behaviour. [1]

Onset and persistence

An exploratory sniffing behaviour that may lead to the development of the wire-gnawing stereotypy in a caged mouse Mouse in a cage.jpg
An exploratory sniffing behaviour that may lead to the development of the wire-gnawing stereotypy in a caged mouse

The display of stereotypies is usually increased in an individual over time due to the changing motivation of the stereotypy. The establishment of a stereotypy may be due to a number of factors within a captive environment. One of the factors within a captive environment that may affect the establishment of stereotypies is exploratory behaviours that are directed to the outside of a cage. Research suggests that some common stereotypic behaviours seen in mice, wire-gnawing for example, may originate from such exploratory behaviours. It has been noted that when mice climb on the bars of the cage, they frequently attempt to sniff outside the cage by putting their nose between the bars of the cage. During this process, mice will occasionally bite the bars. Over time, the frequency of biting the bar increases while the frequency of sniffing decreases until the mice are left with only the wire-gnawing stereotypy. Although there is strong evidence to suggest that the development of stereotypies is influenced by exploratory behaviours, the mechanisms behind these exploratory behaviours are still unclear. They may be the result of some attractive stimuli outside of the cage or they may result from a motivation to escape the cage. [7]

The continuance of a stereotypic behaviour can be explained by its impact on the basal ganglia [8] and the establishment of a habit in its expression. Research in humans suggests that damage to the dorsal basal ganglia can make it very difficult for a person to switch between two motor behaviours, thus they will continuously perform the same behaviour. [8] Similar difficulties in switching between motor behaviours have been seen in bank voles which suggests that basal ganglia dysfunction might be a factor in the development of stereotypies in rodents and other animals. [5]

The interruption or cease of a habit is much more tedious and difficult than that of the initial behaviour. [2] As stereotypies develop, they become more readily elicited, so much so that they are no longer just expressed during the original circumstances and may be expressed in the absence of any apparent stress or conflict. The development of the stereotypy into a habit and the difficulty of interrupting said habit explain why it is expected that the frequency of stereotypies increases with age. [2] There is also some research that suggests that the persistence of stereotypies might be due to behavioural differences between animals with stereotypies and those without. One of the behavioural differences that has been researched is a higher resistance to extinction seen in animals that exhibit stereotypic behaviours. Resistance to extinction occurs when animals are unable to stop a learned response. Research with domesticated dogs has shown that dogs who exhibit common stereotypic behaviours have higher resistance to extinction in a simple experimental task than other dogs. This correlation suggests that stereotypic behaviours in dogs may have been reinforced in some way early in their development and have persisted because these dogs are highly resistant to extinction. [9]

Examples

Video of a mouse showing distinct amphetamine-induced stereotypy reminiscent of nail biting [10]

Many stereotypies can be induced by confinement; for example, cats pace in zoo cages. [11] Pregnant sows whose feed is restricted bite at their stalls' bars and chew without anything in their mouths. [12] In laboratory rats and mice, grooming is the most common activity other than sleep, and grooming stereotypies have been used to investigate several animal models of anxiety and depression. [13]

Examples of stereotypical behaviours include pacing, rocking, swimming in circles, excessive sleeping, self-mutilation (including feather picking and excessive grooming), and mouthing cage bars.

Stereotypies are seen in many species, including primates, birds, and carnivores. Up to 54% of elephants in zoos display stereotypical behaviors. [14] [15] Stereotypic behaviour is also common in captive giraffes; although they perform a wide range of stereotypies, they predominantly lick inanimate objects, which may be related to limitations on natural foraging and feeding behaviour. [16] [17] Stereotypies are well known in stabled horses, usually developing as a result of being confined, particularly with insufficient exercise. They are colloquially called stable vices. They present a management issue, not only leading to facility damage from chewing, kicking, and repetitive motion, but also lead to health consequences for the animal if not addressed. [18]

Asiatic black bears and Malayan sun bears also exhibit stereotypies when they are caged. Common stereotypies in these species include head throwing and jaw clamping. [19]

Stereotypies can also be seen in dogs. Common stereotypic behaviours in dogs include circling, light fixation and fly snapping. [9]

Solutions

Stereotypical behaviour can sometimes be reduced or eliminated by environmental enrichment, including larger and more stimulating enclosures, training, and introductions of stimuli (such as objects, sounds, or scents) to the animal's environment. The enrichment must be varied to remain effective for any length of time. Housing social animals such as primates with other members of their species is also helpful. However, once the behaviour is established, it is sometimes impossible to eliminate due to alterations in the brain. [6]

Animal welfare

The development and continued expression of stereotypies in captive animals can quickly become an animal welfare concern. [20] Stereotypies are considered one of the most important indicators of long-term animal welfare problems. A prolonged display of stereotypies suggests that the welfare of the animal is in a peril state. [4] The welfare of the mink is considered an important aspect from a management standpoint as it has repercussions on the production of the animal. Inadequate welfare has been linked to poor reproductivity and poor growth rate. [5]

Animal research

Extreme displays of stereotypies can be an animal welfare issue as well as a confound in behavioural research. [21] Since much of the behavioural research done on animals requires the subject to have a certain level of normal behavioural functioning, any stereotypic behaviour exhibited by the subjects could compromise the results. [22] However, expressions of stereotypic behaviour can also present a unique opportunity for researchers. Just as human research into basal ganglia dysfunction provided insight into the development of stereotypies in animals, [8] animal research on stereotypic behaviours may help understand the neuronal mechanisms behind many of the motor stereotypies seen in human clinical populations. [23]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mink</span> Mammal

Mink are dark-colored, semiaquatic, carnivorous mammals of the genera Neogale and Mustela and part of the family Mustelidae, which also includes weasels, otters, and ferrets. There are two extant species referred to as "mink": the American mink and the European mink. The extinct sea mink was related to the American mink but was much larger.

A stereotypy is a repetitive or ritualistic movement, posture, or utterance. Stereotypies may be simple movements such as body rocking, or complex, such as self-caressing, crossing and uncrossing of legs, and marching in place. They are found especially in people with autism spectrum disorders and visually impaired children, and are also found in intellectual disabilities, tardive dyskinesia and stereotypic movement disorder, yet may also be encountered in neurotypical individuals as well. Studies have shown stereotypies associated with some types of schizophrenia. Frontotemporal dementia is also a common neurological cause of repetitive behaviors and stereotypies. Several causes have been hypothesized for stereotypy, and several treatment options are available.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feather-plucking</span> Maladaptive, behavioural disorder commonly seen in captive birds

Feather-plucking, sometimes termed feather-picking, feather damaging behaviour or pterotillomania, is a maladaptive, behavioural disorder commonly seen in captive birds that chew, bite or pluck their own feathers with their beak, resulting in damage to the feathers and occasionally the skin. It is especially common among parrots, with an estimated 10% of captive parrots exhibiting the disorder. The areas of the body that are mainly pecked or plucked are the more accessible regions such as the neck, chest, flank, inner thigh and ventral wing area. Contour and down feathers are generally identified as the main target, although in some cases, tail and flight feathers are affected. Although feather-plucking shares characteristics with feather pecking commonly seen in commercial poultry, the two behaviours are currently considered to be distinct as in the latter, the birds peck at and pull out the feathers of other individuals.

An ethogram is a catalogue or inventory of behaviours or actions exhibited by an animal used in ethology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cribbing (horse)</span> Stable vice in horses

Cribbing is a form of stereotypy (equine oral stereotypic behaviour), otherwise known as wind sucking or crib-biting. Cribbing is considered to be an abnormal, compulsive behavior seen in some horses, and is often labelled a stable vice. The major factors that cause cribbing include stress, stable management, genetic and gastrointestinal irritability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Captivity (animal)</span> Animal being held by humans

Animal captivity is the confinement of domestic and wild animals. More specifically, animals that are held by humans and prevented from escaping are said to be in captivity. The term animal captivity is usually applied to wild animals that are held in confinement, but this term may also be used generally to describe the keeping of domesticated animals such as livestock or pets. This may include, for example, animals in farms, private homes, zoos, and laboratories. Animal captivity may be categorized according to the particular motives, objectives, and conditions of the confinement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emotion in animals</span> Research into similarities between animal and human emotions

Emotion is defined as any mental experience with high intensity and high hedonic content. The existence and nature of emotions in non-human animals are believed to be correlated with those of humans and to have evolved from the same mechanisms. Charles Darwin was one of the first scientists to write about the subject, and his observational approach has since developed into a more robust, hypothesis-driven, scientific approach. Cognitive bias tests and learned helplessness models have shown feelings of optimism and pessimism in a wide range of species, including rats, dogs, cats, rhesus macaques, sheep, chicks, starlings, pigs, and honeybees. Jaak Panksepp played a large role in the study of animal emotion, basing his research on the neurological aspect. Mentioning seven core emotional feelings reflected through a variety of neuro-dynamic limbic emotional action systems, including seeking, fear, rage, lust, care, panic and play. Through brain stimulation and pharmacological challenges, such emotional responses can be effectively monitored.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Behavioral enrichment</span>

Behavioral enrichment is an animal husbandry principle that seeks to enhance the quality of captive animal care by identifying and providing the environmental stimuli necessary for optimal psychological and physiological well-being. Enrichment can either be active or passive, depending on whether it requires direct contact between the animal and the enrichment. A variety of enrichment techniques are used to create desired outcomes similar to an animal's individual and species' history. Each of the techniques used is intended to stimulate the animal's senses similarly to how they would be activated in the wild. Provided enrichment may be seen in the form of auditory, olfactory, habitat factors, food, research projects, training, and objects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stable vices</span>

Stable vices are stereotypies of equines, especially horses. They are usually undesirable habits that often develop as a result of being confined in a stable with boredom, hunger, isolation, excess energy, or insufficient exercise. They present a management issue, not only leading to facility damage from chewing, kicking, and repetitive motion, but also leading to health consequences for the animal if not addressed. They also raise animal welfare concerns.

Animal psychopathology is the study of mental or behavioral disorders in non-human animals.

Vocal learning is the ability to modify acoustic and syntactic sounds, acquire new sounds via imitation, and produce vocalizations. "Vocalizations" in this case refers only to sounds generated by the vocal organ as opposed to by the lips, teeth, and tongue, which require substantially less motor control. A rare trait, vocal learning is a critical substrate for spoken language and has only been detected in eight animal groups despite the wide array of vocalizing species; these include humans, bats, cetaceans, pinnipeds, elephants, and three distantly related bird groups including songbirds, parrots, and hummingbirds. Vocal learning is distinct from auditory learning, or the ability to form memories of sounds heard, a relatively common trait which is present in all vertebrates tested. For example, dogs can be trained to understand the word "sit" even though the human word is not in its innate auditory repertoire. However, the dog cannot imitate and produce the word "sit" itself as vocal learners can.

Vacuum activities are innate, fixed action patterns (FAPs) of animal behaviour that are performed in the absence of a sign stimulus (releaser) that normally elicit them. This type of abnormal behaviour shows that a key stimulus is not always needed to produce an activity. Vacuum activities often take place when an animal is placed in captivity and is subjected to a lack of stimuli that would normally cause a FAP.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pain in crustaceans</span> Ethical debate

Pain in crustaceans is a scientific debate which questions whether they experience pain or not. Pain is a complex mental state, with a distinct perceptual quality but also associated with suffering, which is an emotional state. Because of this complexity, the presence of pain in an animal, or another human for that matter, cannot be determined unambiguously using observational methods, but the conclusion that animals experience pain is often inferred on the basis of likely presence of phenomenal consciousness which is deduced from comparative brain physiology as well as physical and behavioural reactions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abnormal behaviour of birds in captivity</span>

Abnormal behavior of birds in captivity has been found to occur among both domesticated and wild birds. Abnormal behavior can be defined in several ways. Statistically, 'abnormal' is when the occurrence, frequency or intensity of a behaviour varies statistically significantly, either more or less, from the normal value. This means that theoretically, almost any behaviour could become 'abnormal' in an individual. Less formally, 'abnormal' includes any activity judged to be outside the normal behaviour pattern for captive birds of that particular class or age. For example, running rather than flying may be a normal behaviour and regularly observed in one species, however, in another species it might be normal but becomes 'abnormal' if it reaches a high frequency, or in another species it is rarely observed and any incidence is considered 'abnormal'. This article does not include 'one-off' behaviours performed by individual birds that might be considered abnormal for that individual, unless these are performed repeatedly by other individuals in the species and are recognised as part of the ethogram of that species.

Animal welfare science is the scientific study of the welfare of animals as pets, in zoos, laboratories, on farms and in the wild. Although animal welfare has been of great concern for many thousands of years in religion and culture, the investigation of animal welfare using rigorous scientific methods is a relatively recent development. The world's first Professor of Animal Welfare Science, Donald Broom, was appointed by Cambridge University (UK) in 1986.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Preference test</span>

A preference test is an experiment in which animals are allowed free access to multiple environments which differ in one or more ways. Various aspects of the animal's behaviour can be measured with respect to the alternative environments, such as latency and frequency of entry, duration of time spent, range of activities observed, or relative consumption of a goal object in the environment. These measures can be recorded either by the experimenter or by motion detecting software. Strength of preference can be inferred by the magnitude of the difference in the response, but see "Advantages and disadvantages" below. Statistical testing is used to determine whether observed differences in such measures support the conclusion that preference or aversion has occurred. Prior to testing, the animals are usually given the opportunity to explore the environments to habituate and reduce the effects of novelty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alopecia in animals</span> Hair loss in non-human mammals

Alopecia in animals is a condition where locations on the body surface that are typically covered in hair, contain areas where hair is absent, and is a condition that can affect other animals besides humans. Alopecia is a condition that can affect wild organisms and captive organisms, however, the condition tends to be more prominent in captive contexts. Development of alopecia in animals is usually the sign of an underlying disease. Some animals may be genetically predisposed to hair loss, while in some it may be caused by hypersensitivity or nutritional factors. These include Moluccan cockatoos, spectacled bears, hedgehogs, raccoons, squirrels, baboons, and chimpanzees since they share 98% of human genes. Others that are selectively bred to have baldness include rabbits, guinea pigs, Syrian hamsters, mice, rats, and cats. Environmental enrichment has been used in some cases to mitigate certain behaviours that cause hair loss, improve alopecia, and address welfare concerns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lignophagia</span> Consumption of wood

Lignophagia is the abnormal behaviour of chewing and eating wood. It has been recorded in several species, but perhaps most commonly in horses where it is usually called, simply, "wood chewing". Lignophagia is a form of the pica disorder, in which normally non-nutritive substances are chewed or eaten. For some animals, wood is the normal primary food source; such animals are known as xylophagous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chris Sherwin</span> English veterinary scientist (1962–2017)

Christopher M. Sherwin was an English veterinary scientist and senior research fellow at the University of Bristol Veterinary School in Lower Langford, Somerset. He specialised in applied ethology, the study of the behaviour of animals in the context of their interactions with humans, and of how to balance the animals' needs with the demands placed on them by humans.

References

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  12. ↑ Lawrence, AB; Terlouw, EM (1993). "A review of behavioral factors involved in the development and continued performance of stereotypic behaviors in pigs". J Anim Sci. 71 (10): 2815–25. doi:10.2527/1993.71102815x. PMID   8226385.
  13. ↑ Kalueff, A.V.; Wheaton, M.; Murphy, D.L. (2007). "What's wrong with my mouse model? Advances and strategies in animal modeling of anxiety and depression". Behav Brain Res. 179 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2007.01.023. PMID   17306892. S2CID   16158758.
  14. ↑ "Defra Final Report on Elephant Welfare" (PDF). Retrieved 16 November 2011.
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