Deep frying

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A chef cooking traditional British fish and chips establishment in Manchester, U.K. in 2007 in a deep fryer Frying range.JPG
A chef cooking traditional British fish and chips establishment in Manchester, U.K. in 2007 in a deep fryer

Deep frying (also referred to as deep fat frying) is a cooking method in which food is submerged in hot fat, traditionally lard but today most commonly oil, as opposed to the shallow frying used in conventional frying done in a frying pan. Normally, a deep fryer or chip pan is used for this; industrially, a pressure fryer or vacuum fryer may be used. Deep frying may also be performed using oil that is heated in a pot. Deep frying is classified as a hot-fat cooking method. [1] [2] Typically, deep frying foods cook quickly since oil has a high rate of heat conduction and all sides of the food are cooked simultaneously. [3]

Contents

The term "deep frying" and many modern deep-fried foods were not invented until the 19th century, but the practice has been around for millennia. Early records and cookbooks suggest that the practice began in certain European countries before other countries adopted the practice.

Deep frying is popular worldwide, with deep-fried foods accounting for a large portion of global caloric consumption.

History

Peixinhos da horta, the Portuguese ancestor of Japanese tempura Peixinhos da horta.jpg
Peixinhos da horta , the Portuguese ancestor of Japanese tempura

The English expression deep-fried is attested from the early 20th century. [4] [5]

Deep-fried dough known as Zalabiyeh was eaten as early as the late 2nd millennium BC in Canaan. Frying food in olive oil is attested in Classical Greece from about the 5th century BCE. [6] [ unreliable source? ][ better source needed ] The, 5th century CE, Roman cookbook Apicius offers a recipe for deep fried chicken in a cream sauce "Pullus leucozomus". [7] The practice of deep frying spread to other parts of Europe and America in the following centuries. Deep-fried foods such as funnel cakes arrived in northern Europe by the 13th century, [8] and deep-fried fish recipes have been found in cookbooks in Spain and Portugal at around the same time. Falafel arrived in the Middle East from Egypt as early as the 14th century. [9] [10] [11]

French fries, invented in the late 18th century, became popular in the early 19th century western Europe. [12] In 1860, Joseph Malin combined deep fried fish with chips (french fries) to open the first fish and chip shop in London. [13]

Modern deep frying in the United States began in the 19th century with the growing popularity of cast iron, particularly around the American South which led to the development of many modern deep-fried dishes. [13] Doughnuts were invented in the mid-18th century, [14] with foods such as onion rings, [15] deep-fried turkey, [16] and corn dogs [17] all being invented in the early 20th century. In recent years, the growth of fast food has expanded the reach of deep-fried foods, [18] especially french fries.[ citation needed ]

Technique

Smultring being deep-fried Munkinpaisto.jpg
Smultring being deep-fried

Deep frying food is defined as a process where food is submerged in hot oil at temperatures typically between 350 °F (177 °C) and 375 °F (191 °C), but deep frying oil can reach temperatures of over 400 °F (205 °C). [19]   One common method for preparing food for deep frying involves adding multiple layers of batter around the food, such as cornmeal, flour, or tempura; breadcrumbs may also be used. [20]

While most foods need batter coatings for protection, it is not as necessary for cooked noodles and potatoes because their high starch content enables them to hold more moisture and not shrink. Meats are sometimes cooked before deep frying to ensure that they are done inside while keeping juiciness. [21]

When performed properly, deep frying does not make food excessively greasy, because the moisture in the food repels the oil. The hot oil heats the water within the food, steaming it; oil cannot go against the direction of this powerful flow because (due to its high temperature) the water vapor pushes the bubbles toward the surface. [3] [22] As long as the oil is hot enough and the food is not immersed in the oil for too long, oil penetration will be confined to the outer surface. Foods deep-fried at proper temperatures typically absorb "no more than a couple of tablespoons per 2+1⁄2 cups of oil" used. [23] This oil absorption rate is around the same as occurs with shallow frying, [23] such as in a pan.

However, if the food is cooked in the oil for too long, much of the water will be lost and the oil will begin to penetrate the food. The correct frying temperature depends on the thickness and type of food, but in most cases it lies between 350–375 °F (177–191 °C). [20] [24] An informal test for a temperature close to this range involves adding a tiny amount of flour into the oil and watching to see if it sizzles without immediately burning. A second test involves adding one piece of food to deep fry and watching it sink somewhat and rise back up. Sinking without resurfacing indicates that the oil is too cold; not sinking at all indicates that the oil is too hot. [20]

It is recommended that deep fryers be cleaned often to prevent contamination. [25] The process of cooking with oil can also contaminate nearby surfaces as oil may splatter on adjacent areas. Oil vapors can also condense on more distant surfaces such as walls and ceilings. Supplies such as dish detergent and baking soda can effectively clean affected surfaces. [25]

Tools

Deep frying is done with a deep fryer, a pan such as a wok or chip pan, a Dutch oven, or a cast-iron pot. Additional tools include fry baskets, which are used to contain foods in a deep fryer and to strain foods when removed from the oil, and cooking thermometers, used to gauge oil temperature. Tongs, slotted spoons, wooden spoons, and sieves may be used to remove or separate foods from the hot oil. [26] [27]

Japanese deep frying tools include long metal chopsticks; the agemono-nabe deep frying pot, which is heavy for retaining heat and deep for holding oil; the ami-shakushi net ladle used for scooping out batter debris; and the abura-kiri oil drying rack pan. [28]

Dishes, foods, and culture

Deep-fried foods are common in many countries, and have also been described as "a staple of almost all street cuisines on all continents". [29] There are hundreds of dishes that are associated with deep frying as most foods can be deep-fried. Examples of food that can be deep-fried include meat, poultry, fish and vegetables. [30] Fish and chips, for instance, combines deep-fried fish and deep-fried potatoes. French fries, doughnuts, onion rings, and hushpuppies are common deep-fried foods. [31] Other common deep-fried foods include Chinese you Bing deep-fried pancakes, [32] Southeast Asian jin deui , and Japanese tempura. Less common deep-fried foods include maple leaves, [33] peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, [34] pizza, [35] Mars and Snickers bars. [36]

In the United States, the Chicago Tribune notes that "you can deep fry almost anything". [37] The American South has been noted as a modern center of innovation in the area of deep-fried food. According to the owner of a deep frying restaurant in the South, "If something is edible, you can bet that someone south of the Mason-Dixon line has tried to cook it in oil". [38]

Africa

In Northern Africa, deep-fried dishes are a part of the cuisine. [39] A common food in this region is the deep-fried fritter, also referred to as "sponges". [39] In East Africa deep fried food is common, cooked in cast iron or earthenware pots. Frying in batter is common. A Ugandan specialty is a kind of doughnut called Mandazi. In areas of Southern Africa, street foods include deep-fried potato and cassava chips. [40] Deep-fried foods in the country of South Africa include fish and chips, vetkoek and koeksisters , [41] among others.

Asia

Deep-fried insects for human consumption sold at food stall in Bangkok, Thailand Insect food stall.JPG
Deep-fried insects for human consumption sold at food stall in Bangkok, Thailand

Japanese tempura is a popular deep-fried food [42] that generally consists of battered and fried seafood and vegetables. Japanese deep-fried dishes, or Agemono, include other styles besides tempura, such as Karaage, Korokke, Kushikatsu, and Tonkatsu.

In areas of Southeast Asia such as Thailand, insects are commonly deep-fried for human consumption. [43] Western-style fast food items such as donuts, deep-fried chicken, and deep-fried potatoes are also becoming popular in Asia. [44]

In Indonesia deep fried food is quite common, serving as either a main dish or a snack. The ingredients are usually deep fried in palm oil, the most widely used cooking oil in the country. Some popular deep fried foods include ayam goreng (chicken), pecel lele (catfish), pempek (fishcake) and tempeh. [45] Fritters in Indonesia is generally identified as gorengan , the most popular one including pisang goreng (banana fritter), bakwan jagung (corn) and tahu goreng (tofu).

Deep-fried fish, tofu, and chả giò are commonly eaten in Vietnamese cuisine. [46] [47] Deep frying is also used to make several kinds of bánh , including bánh rán (fried rice ball), bánh cam (sesame ball), bánh tiêu (hollow doughnut), bánh rế (sweet potato pancake), bánh chuối chiên (banana fritter), Hồ Tây–style bánh tôm (shrimp fritter), and bánh gối (pillow cake).

Deep-fried sticks of dough, known as youtiao in Chinese, are eaten in many East and Southeast Asian cuisines.

In Hong Kong, deep-fried intestine of pigs is a popular food. [48]

In South Asia, popular deep fried snacks are samosa, jalebi, and pakora.

Europe

Many countries such as the United Kingdom use pure or hydrogenated rapeseed oil for deep-frying. [49] Fish and chips is a very popular deep-fried dish in England since it originated in London in the 19th century and became popular among the working class. Its popularity continues with 229 million portions of fish and chips being sold annually in England. [50]

There is an annual trade fair devoted to deep-fried foods called the International Symposium on Deep-Fat Frying which features discussions on deep fat frying as well as exhibitions by companies involved with the process. [51]

Belgian tradition requires French fries to be deep-fried in filtered fat of cattle, locally called blanc de boeuf or ossewit.

The Mediterranean diets traditionally use olive oil for deep-frying, which it is absorbed by the food in the process. Research indicates that virgin olive oil is unique among other cooking oils because it is very rich in monounsaturated fatty acids and contains beneficial micronutrients. [52]

The deep-fried Mars bar originated in Scotland, [53] with The Carron Fish Bar in Stonehaven claiming to have invented it in the early 1990s. [54]

North America

In the United States, soybean oil is often used for deep-frying. [49] Beignets, originally a French dish, are a popular deep-fried pastry in the U.S. city of New Orleans. Deep-fried food has been a core part of the culture of the American South with many restaurants solely serving deep-fried foods. The owner of one such restaurant has said of deep-fried food that "in the South it's a way of life". [38] Fast food is one of the most common ways to consume deep-fried food in North America.

Novelty deep-fried foods are popular today in American fairs, especially those in the American South. [38] Hundreds of items are served at these fairs. Some of them include deep-fried beer, butter, and bubblegum. Additionally, deep frying can be used as a form of artwork by frying non-edible objects, such as electronics. [55] Artists such as Henry Hargreaves have deep-fried replicas of electronic items such as iPads, Game Boys, and laptops. [56]

Deep-fried food contests are frequently held at fairs such as the Texas State Fair, where they hold an annual contest for the most creative deep-fried food. [57] Notable past winners have included fried Coke and deep-fried butter, both invented by Abel Gonzales. [58] Since 2013, an American reality competition show called deep-fried Masters, produced by Discovery Networks, holds deep frying competitions at several state fairs across the country. [59]

Oceania

Fish and chip shops in Australia may purvey several types of deep-fried foods, along with other food types. [60]

South America

Bunuelos Bunuelos.JPG
Buñuelos

The buñuelo, a fried dough ball popular in Central America and Greece, is a popular deep-fried snack and street food in South America. [29] Picarone, a Peruvian dessert originated in the colonial period, are deep-fried doughs made with pumpkin and sweet potatoes, popular in Peru and Chile, especially during harvest festivals., [61] a family of deep fried cakes is well known across, sopaipillas a Chilean bread are deep fried in oil or butter also made with pumpkin, Chancay a Peruvian bread made of flour, salt and yeast, known as chipá cuerito in Paraguay and Torta frita in Argentina and Uruguay, made of flour, salt and yeast, sometimes addition with milk and animal fat and fried in cow fat, the churro, a fried dough popular in Spain is a popular fried snack and street food in Argentina and Uruguay, milanesa a deep fried breaded veal beef from Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay.

Oil deterioration and chemical changes

Deep fat frying involves heating oil to temperatures in excess of 180 °C in the presence of moisture and air. These conditions can induce a series of complex chemical reactions which may impact the quality of both the food and the oil it is cooked in. Examples of different chemical reactions include the production of free radicals, oxidation, hydrolysis, isomerization and polymerization. The exact reactions are dependent upon factors such as the oil type, frying conditions, and food being cooked. When frying, water can attack the ester linkage of triacylglycerols, resulting in mono- and diglycerols, glycerol, and free fatty acids (a type of hydrolysis reaction). The aforementioned hydrolysis reaction is enhanced by the produced fatty acids and other low molecular weight acid compounds. [62]

Overheating or over-using the frying oil leads to formation of rancid-tasting products of oxidation, polymerization, and other deleterious, unintended or even toxic compounds [63] such as acrylamide (from starchy foods). Recent research suggests fat deterioration may be worse when fat or oil is fried with food than when fat or oil is tested on its own in a laboratory. [64] Deep-frying under vacuum helps to significantly reduce acrylamide formation, [65] but this process is not widely used in the food industry due to the high investment cost involved.

Some useful tests and indicators of excessive oil deterioration are the following:

Instruments that indicate total polar compounds, currently the best single gauge of how deep-fried an object is, are available with sufficient accuracy for restaurant and industry use.

Hazards

When deep frying, fires can be very severe, with chip pan fires being the leading cause of house fires in the United Kingdom. Chip-pan-fire.jpg
When deep frying, fires can be very severe, with chip pan fires being the leading cause of house fires in the United Kingdom.

Cooking oil is not flammable at room temperature but can become flammable when used at high temperatures. [68] Fires ensue if it gets ignited under these conditions. [69] [70] Further, attempts to extinguish an oil fire with water can cause an extremely dangerous condition (a slopover) [71] as they cause the water to flash into steam due to the high heat of the oil, in turn sending the burning oil in all directions and thus aggravating the fire. This is the leading cause of house fires in the United Kingdom. Instead, oil fires must be extinguished with a class F fire extinguisher or by starving the fire of oxygen, such as can be accomplished by putting a lid back on the pan or using a fire blanket. Other means of extinguishing an oil fire include application of dry powder (e.g., baking soda, salt) [72] or firefighting foam. Most commercial deep fryers are equipped with automatic fire suppression systems using foam.[ citation needed ]

Spilled hot cooking oil can also cause severe third degree burns, [73] [74] In the worst-case scenario, severe burns can be fatal. The higher temperatures [73] and tendency of oil to stick to the skin make spilled hot cooking oil far more dangerous than spilled hot water. Children can accidentally place their hands on top of the stove, play with the materials while being cooked, or accidentally pull the pot down, which can cause significant injury. [75] If children are present, the utmost care should be used when deep frying so that their safety can be protected at all times. [75] [76]

Environmental

A bin for spent cooking oil in Austin, Texas, managed by a recycling company SpentcookingoilbinAustinTX.JPG
A bin for spent cooking oil in Austin, Texas, managed by a recycling company

Deep frying produces large amounts of waste oil, which must be disposed of properly. Waste oil can contribute to the creation of fatbergs, overflow sewage systems, bind to the walls of sewage pipes, and interfere with sewage treatment. [77] Waste oil from deep frying is increasingly being recycled and refined into biodiesel. [78]

The heating element in a deep fryer consumes enormous energy, electricity or otherwise. According to one source, an average home appliance deep fryer draws 2,000 watts. [79] Potatoes that are stored in artificially humidified warehouses contain more water, which makes the time required to deep fry them into chips longer. This increases the carbon dioxide footprint of commercially producing chips because more energy is required for frying over a longer time. [80]

Health

The process of deep frying food is generally detrimental to its nutritional value. The oils that foods absorb in their batter typically contain large amounts of saturated fats and trans fats. Consumption of large amounts of saturated and trans fats has been linked to a higher risk for some cancers. [81]

Eating deep-fried foods has also been linked to higher cholesterol levels, obesity, heart attacks, and diabetes. [82] Deep-fried foods cooked at certain temperatures can also contain acrylamide. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has however found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; Cancer Research UK categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth". [83]

Additionally, fat degradation processes (lipid peroxidation) during deep frying results in the loss of nutritional value in deep-fried foods. [84]

Cooking oil that has been used for too long may in addition cause blood pressure elevation and vascular hypertrophy. [85]

Trans fats are used in shortenings for deep-frying in restaurants, as they can be used for longer than most conventional oils before becoming rancid. In the early 21st century, non-hydrogenated vegetable oils that have lifespans exceeding that of the frying shortenings became available. [86] As fast-food chains routinely use different fats in different locations, trans fat levels in fast food can have large variations. [87] The amount of trans fat that is formed during frying appears to increase with frying temperature, frying time, oil oxidation, and oil reuse. [88]

Some studies have found that deep frying in olive and sunflower oils has been found to be less of a detriment to health and in some cases have positive effects on insulin levels. [82] Oil can be reused a few times after original use after straining out solids. [20] However, excessive use of the same oil can cause it to break down and release compounds into the food that may be carcinogenic, affect liver health, or influence the body's ability to absorb vitamins. Some European countries have set public health standards for the safety of frying oil. [89]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">French fries</span> Deep-fried strips of potato

French fries, chips, finger chips, french-fried potatoes, or simply fries, are batonnet or julienne-cut deep-fried potatoes of disputed origin from Belgium or France. They are prepared by cutting potatoes into even strips, drying them, and frying them, usually in a deep fryer. Pre-cut, blanched, and frozen russet potatoes are widely used, and sometimes baked in a regular or convection oven; air fryers are small convection ovens marketed for frying potatoes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pan frying</span> Cooking technique

Pan frying or pan-frying is a form of frying food characterized by the use of minimal cooking oil or fat, typically using just enough to lubricate the pan. In the case of a greasy food such as bacon, no oil or fats may need to be added. As a form of frying, the technique relies on oil or fat as the heat transfer medium, and on correct temperature and time to not overcook or burn the food. Pan frying can serve to retain the moisture in foods such as meat and seafood. The food is typically flipped at least once to ensure that both sides are cooked properly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stir frying</span> Cooking technique

Stir frying is a cooking technique in which ingredients are fried in a small amount of very hot oil while being stirred or tossed in a wok. The technique originated in China and in recent centuries has spread into other parts of Asia and the West. It is similar to sautéing in Western cooking technique.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Doughnut</span> Sweet food made from deep-fried dough

A doughnut or donut is a type of pastry made from leavened fried dough. It is popular in many countries and is prepared in various forms as a sweet snack that can be homemade or purchased in bakeries, supermarkets, food stalls, and franchised specialty vendors. Doughnut is the traditional spelling, while donut is the simplified version; the terms are used interchangeably.

<i>Tempura</i> Japanese dish of battered, deep-fried fish or vegetables

Tempura is a typical Japanese dish that usually consists of seafood and vegetables that have been coated in a thin batter and deep fried. Tempura has its origins dating back to the 16th century, when Portuguese Jesuits brought the Western-style cooking method of coating foods with flour and frying, via Nanban trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pakora</span> Spiced fritter originally from the Indian subcontinent

Pakora is a fritter originating from the Indian subcontinent. They are sold by street vendors and served in restaurants across South Asia. It often consists of vegetables such as potatoes and onions, which are coated in seasoned gram flour batter and deep fried.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deep fryer</span> Type of cooking appliance

A deep fryer is a kitchen appliance used to cook foods by full immersion in hot oil (“deep frying”. The cooking oil are typically between temperatures of 350 to 375 °F.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chip pan</span> Steep cooking pan used for deep-frying

A chip pan is a deep-sided cooking pan used for deep-frying. Chip pans are named for their traditional use in frying chips.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of food preparation</span> Art form and applied science to make food ingredients palatable and fit to eat

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the preparation of food:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fishcake</span> Fried minced or ground seafood

A fishcake is a culinary dish consisting of filleted fish or other seafood minced or ground, mixed with a starchy ingredient, and fried until golden.

A vacuum fryer is a deep-frying device housed inside a vacuum chamber. With vacuum frying it is easier to maintain natural colors and flavours of the finished product. Due to the lower temperatures applied, the formation of suspected carcinogen acrylamide is significantly lower than in standard atmospheric fryers, where the frying temperature is approximately 170 °C (338 °F). The fat absorption of the products is also reported to be lower than in atmospheric fryers. In Southeast Asia batch type vacuum fryers are mainly used for the production of fruit chips. However, these machines are only appropriate for relatively small production companies.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fried chicken</span> Dish of chicken pieces coated with seasoned flour or in batter and then fried

Fried chicken, also called Southern fried chicken, is a dish consisting of chicken pieces that have been coated with seasoned flour or batter and pan-fried, deep fried, pressure fried, or air fried. The breading adds a crisp coating or crust to the exterior of the chicken while retaining juices in the meat. Broiler chickens are most commonly used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shallow frying</span> Cooking by immersion in reduced amounts of hot oil

Shallow frying is a hot oil-based cooking technique. It is typically used to prepare portion-sized cuts of meat, fish, potatoes and patties such as fritters. Shallow frying can also be used to cook vegetables.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frying</span> Cooking of food in oil or another fat

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triple-cooked chips</span> Type of deep-fried potato

Triple-cooked chips are a type of chips developed by the English chef Heston Blumenthal. The chips are first simmered, then cooled and drained using a sous-vide technique or by freezing; deep fried at 130 °C (266 °F) and cooled again; and finally deep-fried again at 180 °C (356 °F). The result is what Blumenthal calls "chips with a glass-like crust and a soft, fluffy centre".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Old-fashioned doughnut</span> Type of deep fried food

The old-fashioned doughnut is a term used for a variety of cake doughnut prepared in the shape of a ring with a cracked surface and tapered edges. While many early cookbooks included recipes for "old-fashioned donuts" that were made with yeast, the distinctive cake doughnuts sold in doughnut shops are made with chemical leavener and may have crisper texture compared to other styles of cake doughnuts. The cracked surface is usually glazed or coated with sugar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Okoy</span> Filipino crispy deep-fried fritters

Okoy or ukoy, are Filipino crispy deep-fried fritters made with glutinous rice batter, unshelled small shrimp, and various vegetables, including calabaza, sweet potato, cassava, mung bean sprouts, scallions and julienned carrots, onions, and green papaya. They are traditionally served with vinegar-based dipping sauces. They are eaten on their own or with white rice. They are popular for breakfast, snacks, or appetizers. Okoy are sometimes dyed bright orange with achuete seeds.

References

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