Living Planet Index

Last updated

The World Wildlife Fund's Living Planet Report 2022 found that wildlife populations declined by an average 69% since 1970. 1970- Decline in species populations - Living Planet Index.svg
The World Wildlife Fund’s Living Planet Report 2022 found that wildlife populations declined by an average 69% since 1970.

The Living Planet Index (LPI) is an indicator of the state of global biological diversity, based on trends in vertebrate populations of species from around the world. The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) manages the index in cooperation with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).

Contents

As of 2022, the index is statistically created from journal studies, online databases and government reports for 31,821 populations of 5,230 species of mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and fish. [4]

Results

According to the 2022 report, monitored wildlife populations show an average decline of 69% between 1970 and 2018, [5] suggesting that natural ecosystems are degrading at a rate unprecedented in human history [6] The extent of declines varies with geographic region, with monitored vertebrate populations in Latin America and the Caribbean experiencing average declines of 94%. [4] One of the key drivers of declines has been identified as land-use change and the associated habitat loss and degradation, often linked to unsustainable agriculture, logging, or other development. [4]

Calculation

The Living Planet Database (LPD) has been available online since 2013, and has been maintained by ZSL since 2016. The LPD contains more than 30,000 population trends for more than 5,200 species of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. [4]

The global LPI is calculated using these population time-series, which are gathered from a variety of sources such as journals, online databases and government reports. [4]

A generalized additive modelling framework is used to determine the underlying trend in each population time-series. Average rates of change are calculated and aggregated to the species level. [7] [8]

Each species trend is aggregated to produce an index for the terrestrial, marine and freshwater systems. This process uses a weighted geometric mean [9] method which places most weight on the largest (most species-rich) groups within a biogeographic realm. This is done to counteract the uneven spatial and taxonomic distribution of data in the LPD. The three system indices are then averaged to produce the global LPI. [10]

Criticism

The fact that "all decreases in population size, regardless of whether they bring a population close to extinction, are equally accounted for" has been noted as a limitation. [11]

In 2005, WWF authors identified that the population data was potentially unrepresentative. [12] As of 2009, the database was found to contain too much bird data and gaps in the population coverage of tropical species, although it showed "little evidence of bias toward threatened species". [7] The 2016 report was criticized by a professor at Duke University for over-representing western Europe, where more data were available. [13] Talking to National Geographic, he criticised the attempt to combine data from different regions and ecosystems into a single figure, arguing that such reports are likely motivated by a desire to grab attention and raise money. [14]

A 2017 investigation of the index by members of the ZSL team published in PLOS One found higher declines than had been estimated, and indications that in areas where less data is available, species might be declining more quickly. [10]

In 2020, a re-analysis of the baseline data by McGill University showed that the overall estimated trend of a decline by 60% since 1970 was driven by less than 3% of the studied populations; when some outliers of extreme decline are removed, the decline still exists but is considerably less catastrophic, and when more outliers (roughly amounting to 2.4% of the populations) are removed, the trend shifts to that of a decline between the 1980s and 2000s, but a roughly positive trend after 2000. This extreme sensitivity to outliers indicates that the present approach of the Living Planet Index may be flawed. [15]

Publication

The index was originally developed in 1997 by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) in collaboration with the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), the biodiversity assessment and policy implementation arm of the United Nations Environment Programme. [12] WWF first published the index in 1998. [12] Since 2006, the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) manages the index in cooperation with WWF. [16]

Results are presented biennially in the WWF Living Planet Report and in publications such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the UN Global Biodiversity Outlook. National and regional reports are now being produced to focus on relevant issues at a smaller scale. The latest edition of the Living Planet Report was released in October 2022. [17]

Coverage

The index is often misinterpreted in the media, [18] with incorrect suggestions that it shows we have lost 69% of all animals or species since 1970. [19] This widespread misinterpretation has led to several articles being published which detail what the LPI does and doesn't show, and how to correctly interpret the trend. [20] [21] [22]

Convention on Biological Diversity

In April 2002, and again in 2006, at the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 188 nations committed themselves to actions to: "… achieve, by 2010, a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national levels…" [23]

The LPI played a pivotal role in measuring progress towards the CBD's 2010 target. [24] [25] It has also been adopted by the CBD as an indicator of progress towards its Nagoya Protocol 2011-2020 targets 5, 6, and 12 (part of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets). [26]

Informing the CBD 2020 strategic plan, the Indicators and Assessments Unit at ZSL is concerned with ensuring the most rigorous and robust methods are implemented for the measurement of population trends, expanding the coverage of the LPI to more broadly represent biodiversity, and disaggregating the index in meaningful ways (such as assessing the changes in exploited or invasive species). [27]

See also

Further reading

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Holocene extinction</span> Ongoing extinction event caused by human activity

The Holocene extinction, or Anthropocene extinction, is the ongoing extinction event caused by humans during the Holocene epoch. These extinctions span numerous families of plants and animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates, and affecting not just terrestrial species but also large sectors of marine life. With widespread degradation of biodiversity hotspots, such as coral reefs and rainforests, as well as other areas, the vast majority of these extinctions are thought to be undocumented, as the species are undiscovered at the time of their extinction, which goes unrecorded. The current rate of extinction of species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than natural background extinction rates and is increasing. During the past 100–200 years, biodiversity loss and species extinction have accelerated, to the point that most conservation biologists now believe that human activity has either produced a period of mass extinction, or is on the cusp of doing so. As such, after the "Big Five" mass extinctions, the Holocene extinction event has also been referred to as the sixth mass extinction or sixth extinction; given the recent recognition of the Capitanian mass extinction, the term seventh mass extinction has also been proposed for the Holocene extinction event.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiversity</span> Variety and variability of life forms

Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth; it is usually greater in the tropics as a result of the warm climate and high primary productivity in the region near the equator. Tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10% of Earth's terrestrial surface and contain about 50% of the world's species. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity for both marine and terrestrial taxa. Marine coastal biodiversity is highest globally speaking in the Western Pacific ocean steered mainly by the higher surface temperatures. In all oceans across the planet, marine species diversity peaks in the mid-latitudinal zones. Terrestrial species threatened with mass extinction can be observed in exceptionally dense regional biodiversity hotspots, with high levels of species endemism under threat. There are 36 such hotspot regions which require the world's attention in order to secure global biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protected area</span> Areas protected for having ecological or cultural importance

Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. Protected areas are those areas in which human presence or the exploitation of natural resources is limited.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation biology</span> Study of threats to biological diversity

Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.

The ecological footprint measures human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people and their economies. It tracks human demand on nature through an ecological accounting system. The accounts contrast the biologically productive area people use to satisfy their consumption to the biologically productive area available within a region, nation, or the world (biocapacity). Biocapacity is the productive area that can regenerate what people demand from nature. Therefore, the metric is a measure of human impact on the environment. As Ecological Footprint accounts measure to what extent human activities operate within the means of our planet, they are a central metric for sustainability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fish stocks</span> Semi-discrete subpopulations of a particular species of fish

Fish stocks are subpopulations of a particular species of fish, for which intrinsic parameters are traditionally regarded as the significant factors determining the stock's population dynamics, while extrinsic factors are traditionally ignored.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife conservation</span> Practice of protecting wild plant and animal species and their habitats

Wildlife conservation refers to the practice of protecting wild species and their habitats in order to maintain healthy wildlife species or populations and to restore, protect or enhance natural ecosystems. Major threats to wildlife include habitat destruction, degradation, fragmentation, overexploitation, poaching, pollution, climate change, and the illegal wildlife trade. The IUCN estimates that 42,100 species of the ones assessed are at risk for extinction. Expanding to all existing species, a 2019 UN report on biodiversity put this estimate even higher at a million species. It is also being acknowledged that an increasing number of ecosystems on Earth containing endangered species are disappearing. To address these issues, there have been both national and international governmental efforts to preserve Earth's wildlife. Prominent conservation agreements include the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). There are also numerous nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) dedicated to conservation such as the Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, the Wild Animal Health Fund and Conservation International.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation status</span> Indication of the chance of extinction

The conservation status of a group of organisms indicates whether the group still exists and how likely the group is to become extinct in the near future. Many factors are taken into account when assessing conservation status: not simply the number of individuals remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, and known threats. Various systems of conservation status are in use at international, multi-country, national and local levels, as well as for consumer use such as sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification. The two international systems are by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

The UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) is the specialist biodiversity centre of UN Environment Programme, based in Cambridge in the United Kingdom. UNEP-WCMC has been part of UN Environment Programme since 2000 and has responsibility for biodiversity assessment and support to policy development and implementation. The "World Conservation Monitoring Centre" was previously an independent organisation jointly managed by IUCN, UN Environment Programme and WWF established in 1988. Prior to that, the centre was a part of the IUCN Secretariat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red List Index</span> Conservation status indicator

The Red List Index (RLI), based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, is an indicator of the changing state of global biodiversity. It defines the conservation status of major species groups, and measures trends in extinction risk over time. By conducting conservation assessments at regular intervals, changes in the threat status of species in a taxonomic group can be used to monitor trends in extinction risk. RLIs have been calculated for birds and amphibians, using changes in threat status for species in each of the groups.

The Living Planet Report is published every two years by the World Wide Fund for Nature since 1998. It is based on the Living Planet Index and ecological footprint calculations.

A Regional Red List is a report of the threatened status of species within a certain country or region. It is based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, an inventory of the conservation status of species on a global scale. Regional Red Lists assess the risk of extinction to species within a political management unit and therefore may feed directly into national and regional planning. This project is coordinated by the Zoological Society of London, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and partners in national governments, universities and organizations throughout the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global biodiversity</span> Total variability of Earths life forms

Global biodiversity is the measure of biodiversity on planet Earth and is defined as the total variability of life forms. More than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 2 million to 1 trillion, but most estimates are around 11 million species or fewer. About 1.74 million species were databased as of 2018, and over 80 percent have not yet been described. The total amount of DNA base pairs on Earth, as a possible approximation of global biodiversity, is estimated at 5.0 x 1037, and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiversity Indicators Partnership</span>

The Biodiversity Indicators Partnership (BIP) brings together a host of international organizations working on indicator development, to provide the best available information on biodiversity trends to the global community. The Partnership was initially established to help monitor progress towards the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 2010 Biodiversity target. However, since its establishment in 2006 the BIP has developed a strong identity not only within the CBD but with other Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs), national and regional governments and other sectors. As a result, the Partnership will continue through international collaboration and cooperation to provide biodiversity indicator information and trends into the future.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Defaunation</span> Loss or extinctions of animals in the forests

Defaunation is the global, local, or functional extinction of animal populations or species from ecological communities. The growth of the human population, combined with advances in harvesting technologies, has led to more intense and efficient exploitation of the environment. This has resulted in the depletion of large vertebrates from ecological communities, creating what has been termed "empty forest". Defaunation differs from extinction; it includes both the disappearance of species and declines in abundance. Defaunation effects were first implied at the Symposium of Plant-Animal Interactions at the University of Campinas, Brazil in 1988 in the context of Neotropical forests. Since then, the term has gained broader usage in conservation biology as a global phenomenon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">World Wide Fund for Nature</span> International non-governmental environmental organization

The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is a Swiss-based international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States. WWF is the world's largest conservation organization, with over five million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100 countries and supporting around 3,000 conservation and environmental projects. They have invested over $1 billion in more than 12,000 conservation initiatives since 1995. WWF is a foundation with 65% of funding from individuals and bequests, 17% from government sources and 8% from corporations in 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiversity loss</span> Extinction of species or loss of species in a given habitat

Biodiversity loss happens when plant or animal species disappear completely from Earth (extinction) or when there is a decrease or disappearance of species in a specific area. Biodiversity loss means that there is a reduction in biological diversity in a given area. The decrease can be temporary or permanent. It is temporary if the damage that led to the loss is reversible in time, for example through ecological restoration. If this is not possible, then the decrease is permanent. The cause of most of the biodiversity loss is, generally speaking, human activities that push the planetary boundaries too far. These activities include habitat destruction and land use intensification. Further problem areas are air and water pollution, over-exploitation, invasive species and climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Joshua Powell</span> British conservation biologist (born 1993)

Joshua John Powell CF is a British conservation biologist. He is one of the faces of WWF's #WWFVoices campaign on global biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable Development Goal 15</span> 15th of 17 Sustainable Development Goals to protect life on land

Sustainable Development Goal 15 is about "Life on land". One of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2015, the official wording is: "Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss". The Goal has 12 targets to be achieved by 2030. Progress towards targets will be measured by 14 indicators.

References

  1. ↑ "Living Planet Index, World". Our World in Data. 13 October 2022. Archived from the original on 8 October 2023. Data source: World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Zoological Society of London
  2. ↑ Whiting, Kate (17 October 2022). "6 charts that show the state of biodiversity and nature loss - and how we can go 'nature positive'". World Economic Forum. Archived from the original on 25 September 2023.
  3. ↑ Regional data from "How does the Living Planet Index vary by region?". Our World in Data. 13 October 2022. Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Data source: Living Planet Report (2022). World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Zoological Society of London. -
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Westveer, J.; Freeman, R.; McRae, L.; Marconi, V.; Almond, R.E.A; Grooten, M. (2022). A Deep Dive into the Living Planet: A Technical Report. Gland, Switzerland: WWF. p. 24.
  5. ↑ WWF (2022). Almond, R.E.A.; Grooten, M.; Juffe Bignoli, D.; Peterson, T. (eds.). Living Planet Report 2022 - Building a nature-positive society. Gland, Switzerland: WWF. p. 4. ISBN   978-2-88085-316-7.
  6. ↑ Report 2016: Risk and resilience in a new era (PDF) (Report). Living Planet. World Wildlife Fund. pp. 1–148. ISBN   978-2-940529-40-7 . Retrieved 29 October 2016. (Summary Archived 13 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine ).
  7. 1 2 Collen, B.; Loh, J.; Whitmee, S.; McRae, L.; Amin, R.; Baillie, J. E. (2009). "Monitoring Change in Vertebrate Abundance: the Living Planet Index". Conservation Biology. 23 (2): 317–327. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01117.x. PMID   19040654. S2CID   8423870.
  8. ↑ Loh, J., Green, R.E., Ricketts, T., Lamoreux, J., Jenkins, M., Kapos, V., and Randers, J., 2005. The Living Planet Index: using species population time series to track trends in biodiversity. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 360: 289–295.
  9. ↑ rlpi package (beta), Zoological Society of London, 28 April 2023, retrieved 13 June 2023
  10. 1 2 McRae, Louise; Deinet, Stefanie; Freeman, Robin (3 January 2017). "The Diversity-Weighted Living Planet Index: Controlling for Taxonomic Bias in a Global Biodiversity Indicator". PLOS ONE. 12 (1): e0169156. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1269156M. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169156 . PMC   5207715 . PMID   28045977.
  11. ↑ Pereira, HM, Cooper, HD (2006). "Towards the global monitoring of biodiversity change" (PDF). Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 21 (3): 123–129. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2005.10.015. PMID   16701487 . Retrieved 3 November 2018.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. 1 2 3 Loh, Jonathan; et al. (2005). "The Living Planet Index: using species population time series to track trends in biodiversity". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 360 (1454): 289–95. doi:10.1098/rstb.2004.1584. PMC   1569448 . PMID   15814346.
  13. ↑ "WWF report: Mass wildlife loss caused by human consumption". BBC News. 30 October 2018. and Morelle, Rebecca (27 October 2016). "World wildlife 'falls by 58% in 40 years'". BBC News. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
  14. ↑ Brian Clark Howard (27 October 2016). "World to Lose Two-Thirds of Wild Animals by 2020?". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 28 October 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  15. ↑ Leung, Brian; Hargreaves, Anna L.; Greenberg, Dan A.; McGill, Brian; Dornelas, Maria; Freeman, Robin (18 November 2020). "Clustered versus catastrophic global vertebrate declines". Nature. 588 (7837): 267–271. Bibcode:2020Natur.588..267L. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2920-6. hdl: 10023/23213 . PMID   33208939. S2CID   227065128.
  16. ↑ "Living Planet Index: Partners and Collaborators". Zoological Society of London and WWF. Retrieved 1 November 2018.
  17. ↑ "About the Living Planet Report 2022". livingplanet.panda.org. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  18. ↑ Yong, Ed (31 October 2018). "Wait, Have We Really Wiped Out 60 Percent of Animals?". The Atlantic . Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  19. ↑ "Humans wipe out 70% of animals in 50 years". The Times . Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  20. ↑ Einhorn, Catrin (12 October 2022). "Researchers Report a Staggering Decline in Wildlife. Here's How to Understand It". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  21. ↑ "There's a frightening new report about wildlife declines. But many are getting the story wrong". 12 October 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  22. ↑ "Living Planet Index: what does an average decline of 69% really mean?" . Retrieved 26 March 2024.
  23. ↑ "Report of the Eighth Meeting of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity" (PDF). UNEP. 15 June 2006. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
  24. ↑ Butchart, S. H. M., Walpole, M. et al. (2010) "Global Biodiversity: Indicators of Recent Declines." Science 328(5982): 1164-1168.
  25. ↑ UNEP (2006) Report on the eighth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity In: CBD, editor. pp. 374.
  26. ↑ "Aichi Biodiversity Targets". CBD Secretariat. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  27. ↑ "Indicators and Assessments Unit". Zoological Society of London. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.