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The Carnian pluvial episode (CPE), often called the Carnian pluvial event, was an interval of major change in global climate that was synchronous with significant changes in Earth's biota both in the sea and on land. It occurred during the latter part of the Carnian Stage, a subdivision of the late Triassic period, and lasted for perhaps 1–2 million years (around 234–232 million years ago). [6] [7]
The CPE corresponds to a significant episode in the evolution and diversification of many taxa that are important today, among them some of the earliest dinosaurs (which include the ancestors of birds), lepidosaurs (the ancestors of modern-day snakes and lizards) and mammaliaforms (ancestors of mammals). In the marine realm it saw the first appearance among the microplankton of coccoliths and dinoflagellates, [8] [7] [9] with the latter linked to the rapid diversification of scleractinian corals through the establishment of symbiotic zooxanthellae within them. The CPE also saw the extinction of many aquatic invertebrate species, especially among the ammonoids, bryozoa, and crinoids. [6]
Evidence for the CPE is observed in Carnian strata worldwide, and in sediments of both terrestrial and marine environments. On land, the prevailing arid climate across much of the supercontinent Pangea shifted briefly to a hotter and more humid climate, with a significant increase in rainfall and runoff. [6] [10] [8] [11] [12] In the oceans, there was reduced deposition of carbonate minerals. This may reflect the extinction of many carbonate-forming organisms, but may also be due to a rise in the carbonate compensation depth, below which most carbonate shells dissolve and leave few carbonate particles on the ocean floor to form sediments. [13] [14] [15] [16]
Climate change during the Carnian pluvial event is reflected in chemical changes in Carnian strata across the CPE, which suggest that global warming was prevalent at the time. This climate change was probably linked to the eruption of extensive flood basalts as the Wrangellia Terrane was accreted onto the northwestern end of the North American Plate. [10]
Environmental disturbance and high extinction rates were observed for sediments of the Carnian stage long before a global climate perturbation was proposed. Schlager & Schöllnberger (1974) drew attention to a dark siliciclastic layer which abruptly interrupted a long period of carbonate deposition in the Northern Limestone Alps. [17] They termed this stratigraphic "wende" (turning point) the Reingrabener Wende, and it has also been called the Reingraben event or Raibl event. [14] [18] Several Carnian terrestrial formations (namely the Schilfsandstein of Germany and various members of the United Kingdom's Mercia Mudstone Group) are intervals of river sediments enriched with kaolinitic clay and plant debris, despite having been deposited between more arid strata. Humidity-adapted palynomorphs in New Brunswick, karst topography in the U.K., and a carbon isotope excursion in Israel were all reported for the middle of the Carnian prior to 1989. The Julian-Tuvalian boundary experienced high extinction rates among many marine invertebrates, while an extinction among land vertebrates was suggested to occur in the late Carnian. [6]
In 1989, a paper by Michael J. Simms and Alastair H. Ruffell combined these disparate observations into a new hypothesis, pointing to an episode of increased rainfall synchronous with significant ecological turnover in the mid-Carnian. [6] The paper was inspired by a conversation between Simms and Ruffell, on 10 November 1987 at Birmingham University, that connected Ruffell's research on lithological changes in the Mercia Mudstone Group to Simms's research on crinoid extinction. [19] A key aspect of their hypothesis was that the evidence used to demonstrate the climate change was entirely independent of the evidence for biotic change; fossils were not used in any way to infer climate change. Their hypothesized climatic disturbance, which they named the Carnian pluvial episode, was tentatively considered to be a result of oceanic and/or volcanic instability related to the early rifting of Pangea, but at that time direct evidence of this was lacking. [6] Simms and Ruffell published several more papers in the coming years, [20] [21] but their hypothesis was not widely accepted. [19] A strong critique by Visscher et al. (1994) argued that aridity-adapted pollen stayed abundant through the entire Carnian of Germany, suggesting that the Schilfsandstein was simply indicative of an invading river system rather than widespread climate change. [22] Their critique also coined the term "Carnian pluvial event", which would eventually become among the most widespread names for the climatic disturbance. [16] [23]
The obscurity of Simms and Ruffell's hypothesis began to dissipate in the late 2000s, as further support accumulated from studies on Carnian sites in Italy. [16] [24] [19] Interest in the hypothesis was greatly enhanced by a 2008 meeting and workshop on Triassic climate at the Museum of Nature South Tyrol in Bolzano, Italy. [23] [19] However, even as the global nature of the CPE became increasingly accepted, its ultimate cause was still hotly debated going into the 2010s. Even its nomenclature was not agreed upon, with various authors applying names such as the middle Carnian wet intermezzo, [25] [26] Carnian humid episode, [20] [27] [28] Carnian pluvial phase, [29] [30] and Carnian crisis. [31] Carbon and Osmium isotope records published over the coming years supported a strong link between the Carnian climate disturbances and the Wrangellia large igneous province, but many questions remain unanswered. [32] [10] A geological workshop focusing on the CPE met in 2018 at the Hanse-Wissenschaftskolleg (HWK) Institute for Advanced Study in Delmenhorst, Germany. The workshop was intended to spur further research on the mechanisms, impact, and stratigraphy of the CPE, as well as its relevance for understanding modern climate change. It also attempted to standardize the nomenclature of the CPE, rejecting descriptors such as "event" (typically applied to geological processes under a million years in duration) or "middle Carnian" (a nebulous term with no equivalent geological substage). [33]
The Carnian pluvial episode introduced markedly more humid conditions across the globe, interrupting the otherwise arid climate of the Late Triassic period. This humidity was related to increased rainfall during the CPE, evidence of which includes:
This usually wet climate of the CPE was periodically interrupted by drier climates typical of the rest of the Late Triassic period. [29]
Global warming was also prevalent during the Carnian pluvial event. This is evidenced by oxygen isotope analyses performed on conodont apatite from the CPE, which show an approximately 1.5‰ negative shift in the stable isotope δ18O, suggesting global warming of 3–4 °C during the CPE and/or a change in seawater salinity. [31] [36] This warming was probably related to extensive volcanic activity at the time, evidenced by carbon isotope trends across the CPE. [10] This volcanic activity was in turn probably related to the formation of the Wrangellia Large igneous province around the same time, which created vast quantities of igneous (volcanic) rocks that were accreted onto the northwest end of the North American Plate (now the Wrangell Mountains, Alaska). [10]
There is some evidence for seabed euxinia (no oxygen and high toxic sulfide concentrations) during the CPE. Limestones are enriched in manganese ions near the top of the Zhuganpo Formation of south China. Manganese ions are concentrated and soluble in deep euxinic waters, but precipitate in carbonates at the base of the oxygenated zone. Increasing manganese concentrations indicate a narrowing of the oxygenated zone and a corresponding expansion of euxinic water. [28]
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At the onset of the CPE a sharp change in carbonate platform geometries is recorded in western Tethys. High relief, mainly isolated, small carbonate platforms surrounded by steep slopes, typical of the early Carnian, were replaced by low-relief carbonate platforms featuring low-angle slopes (i.e., ramps). This turnover is related to a major change in the biological community responsible for calcium carbonate precipitation (i.e. carbonate factory). The highly-productive, mainly bacterial-dominated biological community (M-factory) whose action led to the carbonate production on high-relief platforms was substituted by a less productive mollusc-metazoan-dominated community (C-T factories).
In the South China block, the demise of carbonate platforms is coupled with the deposition of sediments typical of anoxic environments (black shales). Thanks to low oxygen levels, animal remains were often well-preserved in sedimentary deposits called Lagerstätten. These Lagerstätten are rich in crinoids and reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs.
The CPE is marked by disruptions to geochemical cycles, most notably the carbon cycle. Sediments corresponding to the base of the episode show a prominent –2 to –4‰ δ13C excursion, indicating the release of a lightweight carbon isotope, carbon-12, into the atmosphere. [37] This excursion was first mentioned regarding carbonates in Israel, [6] and was later reported in more detail from fragments of carbonized wood in the Dolomites. [10] It has been confirmed in various carbon-based sediments throughout Europe and Asia. [37] [28] [38] [39] More precise stratigraphic evaluation of European outcrops has resolved this excursion into three or possibly four major pulses, spanning the late Julian and early Tuvalian. Each pulse can be equated with an interval of abnormal sedimentation on land and sea. The third excursion, at the Julian-Tuvalian boundary, is correlated with major ammonoid and conodont extinctions. [40]
Norwegian shale and Japanese chert from the Ladinian-Carnian boundary show a marked change in the ratio of seawater osmium isotopes. The relative abundance of osmium-187 over osmium-188 declines strongly through most of the Julian before rebounding and stabilizing in the Tuvalian. The decline is attributed to early phases of the Wrangellia LIP enriching the ocean with osmium-188. Osmium-188 is preferentially sourced directly from the mantle, while osmium-187 is a radiogenic isotope supplied from eroded land. [32] [41] [42]
In the Alps, moderate to high concentrations of mercury occur alongside carbon cycle disruptions, just prior to the sediment disruption which marks the CPE. These mercury spikes occur in well-oxygenated mudstones, meaning that they are not a consequence of redox fluctuations. The ratio of mercury to organic carbon is stronger and occurs earlier in areas corresponding to open marine environments. Although the mercury spikes do not correlate with any indicators of terrestrial runoff, runoff could help maintain high mercury concentrations in the ocean through the CPE. The most parsimonious explanation is that the mercury was initially derived from a pulse of volcanic activity, particularly the Wrangellia LIP. This further supports a volcanic cause of the Carnian pluvial episode. [43] Mercury spikes are also found alongside carbon cycle disruptions in both marine [44] and lake [45] sediments in China. These mercury spikes have no trace of mass-independent fractionation, meaning that their isotope distribution is most consistent with a volcanic origin and atmospheric deposition. [44]
Conodonts, ammonoids, crinoids, bryozoa and green algae experienced high extinction rates during the CPE. Other organisms radiated and diversified during the interval, such as dinosaurs, calcareous nannofossils, corals and conifers. [6] [8] [20] [21]
The oldest dinosaur-bearing fossil assemblage, the Ischigualasto Formation of Argentina, has been radiometrically dated back to 230.3 to 231.4 million years ago. This age is very similar to the minimum age calculated for the CPE (≈230.9 million years ago). Ichnofossil comparisons of various tetrapods from before, during and after the CPE suggest an explosive radiation of dinosaurs due to the Carnian humid phase. [46] However, while avemetatarsalian diversity, diversification rate, and size disparity does increase through the Carnian, it increases faster in the Ladinian and Norian, suggesting that the CPE was not a major influence on the rise of dinosaurs. [47]
The CPE had a profound effect on the diversity and morphological disparity of herbivorous tetrapods. [48] This is exemplified in rhynchosaurs, a group of reptiles with strong shearing and grinding jaws. Rhynchosaur lineages which were common in the Middle Triassic went extinct, leaving only the specialized hyperodapedontines as representatives of the group. Immediately after the CPE, hyperodapedontines were widespread and abundant in the late Carnian world, suggesting that they benefited from the climate fluctuations or floral turnover. [49] Hyperodapedontine abundance was not sustained for long, and they too would die out in the early Norian. By cutting rhynchosaurs off from a greater variety of niches, the CPE would have reduced their versatility and increased their vulnerability to extinction. Similar trends are observed in dicynodonts, though they would survive until much later in the Triassic. Conversely, more versatile and generalist herbivores such as aetosaurs and sauropodomorph dinosaurs would diversify after the CPE. [48]
The oldest widespread amber deposition occurred during the CPE. [50] Carnian amber droplets from Italian paleosols are the oldest amber deposits known to preserve arthropods and microorganisms. [51] Amber would not reappear in the fossil record until the Late Jurassic, though it would take until the Early Cretaceous for amber to occur in concentrations equivalent to or exceeding Carnian amber. [52] [50]
The first planktonic calcifiers occurred just after the CPE and might have been calcareous dinocysts, i.e., calcareous cysts of dinoflagellates.
The recent discovery of a prominent δ13C negative shift in higher plants' n-alkanes suggests a massive CO2 injection in the atmosphere-ocean system at the base of the CPE. The minimum radiometric age of the CPE (≈230.9 Ma) is similar in age to the basalts of the Wrangellia large igneous province (LIP). In the geological record, LIP volcanism is often correlated to episodes of major climate changes and extinctions, which may be caused by pollution of ecosystems with massive release of volcanic gases such as CO2 and SO2. Large release of CO2 in the atmosphere-ocean system by Wrangellia can explain the increased supply of siliciclastic material into basins, as observed during the CPE. The increase of CO2 in the atmosphere could have resulted in global warming and consequent acceleration of the hydrological cycle, thus strongly enhancing the continental weathering. Moreover, if rapid enough, a sudden rise of pCO2 levels could have resulted in acidification of seawater with the consequent rise of the carbonate compensation depth (CCD) and a crisis of carbonate precipitation (e.g. demise of carbonate platforms in the western Tethys). On top of all that, the global warming brought on by the flood basalt event was likely exacerbated by the release of methane clathrates. [53]
According to an alternative hypothesis, the Carnian pluvial episode was a regional climatic perturbation mostly visible in the western Tethys and related to the uplift of a new mountain range, the Cimmerian orogen, which resulted from the closing of a Tethyan northern branch, east of the present European continent.
The new mountain range was forming on the southern side of Laurasia, and acted then as the Himalayas and Asia do today for the Indian Ocean, maintaining a strong pressure gradient between the ocean and continent, and thus generating a monsoon. Summer monsoonal winds were thus intercepted by the Cimmerian mountain range and generated strong rain, thus explaining the switch to humid climate recognized in western Tethys sediments. [31] [14]
Approximately 251.9 million years ago, the Permian–Triassicextinction event forms the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geologic periods, and with them the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. It is the Earth's most severe known extinction event, with the extinction of 57% of biological families, 83% of genera, 81% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. It is also the greatest known mass extinction of insects. It is the greatest of the "Big Five" mass extinctions of the Phanerozoic. There is evidence for one to three distinct pulses, or phases, of extinction.
The Triassic is a geologic period and system which spans 50.5 million years from the end of the Permian Period 251.902 million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Jurassic Period 201.4 Mya. The Triassic is the first and shortest period of the Mesozoic Era. Both the start and end of the period are marked by major extinction events. The Triassic Period is subdivided into three epochs: Early Triassic, Middle Triassic and Late Triassic.
The Triassic–Jurassic (Tr-J) extinction event (TJME), often called the end-Triassic extinction, was a Mesozoic extinction event that marks the boundary between the Triassic and Jurassic periods, 201.4 million years ago, and is one of the top five major extinction events of the Phanerozoic eon, profoundly affecting life on land and in the oceans. In the seas, the entire class of conodonts and 23–34% of marine genera disappeared. On land, all archosauromorphs other than crocodylomorphs, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs became extinct; some of the groups which died out were previously abundant, such as aetosaurs, phytosaurs, and rauisuchids. Some remaining non-mammalian therapsids and many of the large temnospondyl amphibians had become extinct prior to the Jurassic as well. However, there is still much uncertainty regarding a connection between the Tr-J boundary and terrestrial vertebrates, due to a lack of terrestrial fossils from the Rhaetian (latest) stage of the Triassic. What was left fairly untouched were plants, crocodylomorphs, dinosaurs, pterosaurs and mammals; this allowed the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and crocodylomorphs to become the dominant land animals for the next 135 million years.
The Late Ordovician mass extinction (LOME), sometimes known as the end-Ordovician mass extinction or the Ordovician-Silurian extinction, is the first of the "big five" major mass extinction events in Earth's history, occurring roughly 445 million years ago (Ma). It is often considered to be the second-largest known extinction event, in terms of the percentage of genera that became extinct. Extinction was global during this interval, eliminating 49–60% of marine genera and nearly 85% of marine species. Under most tabulations, only the Permian-Triassic mass extinction exceeds the Late Ordovician mass extinction in biodiversity loss. The extinction event abruptly affected all major taxonomic groups and caused the disappearance of one third of all brachiopod and bryozoan families, as well as numerous groups of conodonts, trilobites, echinoderms, corals, bivalves, and graptolites. Despite its taxonomic severity, the Late Ordovician mass extinction did not produce major changes to ecosystem structures compared to other mass extinctions, nor did it lead to any particular morphological innovations. Diversity gradually recovered to pre-extinction levels over the first 5 million years of the Silurian period.
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The Early Triassic is the first of three epochs of the Triassic Period of the geologic timescale. It spans the time between 251.9 Ma and 247.2 Ma. Rocks from this epoch are collectively known as the Lower Triassic Series, which is a unit in chronostratigraphy. The Early Triassic is the oldest epoch of the Mesozoic Era. It is preceded by the Lopingian Epoch and followed by the Middle Triassic Epoch. The Early Triassic is divided into the Induan and Olenekian ages. The Induan is subdivided into the Griesbachian and Dienerian subages and the Olenekian is subdivided into the Smithian and Spathian subages.
In the geologic timescale, the Middle Triassic is the second of three epochs of the Triassic period or the middle of three series in which the Triassic system is divided in chronostratigraphy. The Middle Triassic spans the time between 247.2 Ma and 237 Ma. It is preceded by the Early Triassic Epoch and followed by the Late Triassic Epoch. The Middle Triassic is divided into the Anisian and Ladinian ages or stages.
The Late Triassic is the third and final epoch of the Triassic Period in the geologic time scale, spanning the time between 237 Ma and 201.4 Ma. It is preceded by the Middle Triassic Epoch and followed by the Early Jurassic Epoch. The corresponding series of rock beds is known as the Upper Triassic. The Late Triassic is divided into the Carnian, Norian and Rhaetian ages.
The Ladinian is a stage and age in the Middle Triassic series or epoch. It spans the time between 242 Ma and ~237 Ma. The Ladinian was preceded by the Anisian and succeeded by the Carnian.
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The Schlern Formation, also known as Schlern Dolomite, and Sciliar Formation or Sciliar Dolomite in Italy, is a limestone, marl and dolomite formation in the Southern Limestone Alps in Kärnten, Austria and South Tyrol, Italy.
The Xiaowa Formation is a Carnian-age geological formation found in southern China. It is a sequence of limestone and marls from the Carnian stage of the Triassic. Its lower section was previously known as the Wayao Formation or Wayao Member of the Falang Formation. In 2002, the Wayao Member was renamed and raised to the Xiaowa Formation to prevent confusion with an Eocene unit of the same name. Crinoids and marine reptiles are abundant in the Xiaowa Formation, forming a lagerstätte known as the Guanling biota. Ammonoids and conodonts found in the formation constrain its age to the early Carnian. Reptiles of the Guanling biota include ichthyosaurs, thalattosaurs, placodonts, and Odontochelys. Sedimentary events within this formation have been tied to the Carnian Pluvial Event.
The Toarcian extinction event, also called the Pliensbachian-Toarcian extinction event, the Early Toarcian mass extinction, the Early Toarcian palaeoenvironmental crisis, or the Jenkyns Event, was an extinction event that occurred during the early part of the Toarcian age, approximately 183 million years ago, during the Early Jurassic. The extinction event had two main pulses, the first being the Pliensbachian-Toarcian boundary event (PTo-E). The second, larger pulse, the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event (TOAE), was a global oceanic anoxic event, representing possibly the most extreme case of widespread ocean deoxygenation in the entire Phanerozoic eon. In addition to the PTo-E and TOAE, there were multiple other, smaller extinction pulses within this span of time.
The Selli Event, also known as OAE1a, was an oceanic anoxic event (OAE) of global scale that occurred during the Aptian stage of the Early Cretaceous, about 120.5 million years ago (Ma). The OAE is associated with large igneous province volcanism and an extinction event of marine organisms driven by global warming, ocean acidification, and anoxia.
The Paquier Event (OAE1b) was an oceanic anoxic event (OAE) that occurred around 111 million years ago (Ma), in the Albian geologic stage, during a climatic interval of Earth's history known as the Middle Cretaceous Hothouse (MKH).
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