Olenekian

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Olenekian
251.2 – 247.2 Ma
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Lange Anna, Helgoland.JPG
Olenekian Buntsandstein in Heligoland, Germany
Chronology
Etymology
Name formalityFormal
Usage information
Celestial body Earth
Regional usageGlobal (ICS)
Time scale(s) usedICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unit Age
Stratigraphic unit Stage
Time span formalityFormal
Lower boundary definitionNot formally defined
Lower boundary definition candidates FAD of the Conodont Neospathodus waageni
Lower boundary GSSP candidate section(s)Mud (Muth) village, Spiti valley, India [6]
Upper boundary definitionNot formally defined
Upper boundary definition candidates
Upper boundary GSSP candidate section(s)

In the geologic timescale, the Olenekian is an age in the Early Triassic epoch; in chronostratigraphy, it is a stage in the Lower Triassic series. It spans the time between 251.2 Ma and 247.2 Ma (million years ago). [7] The Olenekian is sometimes divided into the Smithian and the Spathian subages or substages. [8] The Olenekian follows the Induan and is followed by the Anisian (Middle Triassic). [9]

Contents

The Olenekian saw the deposition of a large part of the Buntsandstein in Europe. The Olenekian is roughly coeval with the regional Yongningzhenian Stage used in China.

Stratigraphic definitions

The Olenekian Stage was introduced into scientific literature by Russian stratigraphers in 1956. [10] The stage is named after Olenëk in Siberia. Before the subdivision in Olenekian and Induan became established, both stages formed the Scythian Stage, which has since disappeared from the official timescale.

The base of the Olenekian is at the lowest occurrence of the ammonoids Hedenstroemia or Meekoceras gracilitatis , and of the conodont Neospathodus waageni . It is defined as ending near the lowest occurrences of genera Japonites , Paradanubites , and Paracrochordiceras ; and of the conodont Chiosella timorensis . A GSSP (global reference profile for the base) has not been established as of December 2020.

In the 1960s, English paleontologist Edward T. Tozer (sometimes collaborating with American geologist Norman J. Silberling) crafted Triassic timescales based on North American ammonoid zones, further refining it in the following decades. Tozer's nomenclature was largely derived from Mojsisovics's work, who coined most of the Triassic stages and substages, but he redefined them using North American sites. He recommended the Lower Triassic series be divided into the Griesbachian, Dienerian, Smithian, and Spathian. The latter two roughly correspond with the Olenekian. Tozer's timescale became popular in the Americas. [11] He named the Smithian after Smith Creek on Ellesmere Island, Canada (the creek itself is named after geologist J. P. Smith). The Smithian is defined by the Arctoceras bloomstrandi ammonoid zone (contains Euflemingites romunderi and Juvenites crassus) and the overlying Meekoceras gracilitatis and Wasatchites tardus subzones. He named the Spathian after Spath Creek on Ellesmere Island (this creek is named after geologist L. F. Spath), and defined it by the Procolumbites subrobustus ammonoid zone. [8]

Olenekian life

Life was still recovering from the severe end-Permian mass extinction. During the Olenekian, the flora changed from lycopod dominated (e.g. Pleuromeia ) to gymnosperm and pteridophyte dominated. [12] [13] These vegetation changes are due to global changes in temperature and precipitation. Conifers (gymnosperms) were the dominant plants during most of the Mesozoic. Among land vertebrates, the archosaurs - a group of diapsid reptiles encompassing crocodiles, pterosaurs, dinosaurs, and ultimately birds - first evolved from archosauriform ancestors during the Olenekian. This group includes ferocious predators like Erythrosuchus .

In the oceans, microbial reefs were common during the Early Triassic, possibly due to lack of competition with metazoan reef builders as a result of the extinction. [14] However, transient metazoan reefs reoccurred during the Olenekian wherever permitted by environmental conditions. [15] Ammonoids and conodonts diversified, but both suffered losses during the Smithian-Spathian boundary extinction (see below) [16] at the end of the Smithian subage.

Ray-finned fishes largely remained unaffected by the Permian-Triassic extinction event. Coelacanths show their highest post-Devonian diversity during the Early Triassic. [17] [18] Many fish genera show a cosmopolitan distribution during the Induan and Olenekian, such as Australosomus , Birgeria , Parasemionotidae, Pteronisculus , Ptycholepidae, Saurichthys and Whiteia . This is well exemplified in the Griesbachian (early Induan) aged fish assemblages of the Wordie Creek Formation (East Greenland), [19] [20] the Dienerian (late Induan) aged assemblages of the Middle Sakamena Formation (Madagascar), [21] Candelaria Formation (Nevada, United States), [22] and Mikin Formation (Himachal Pradesh, India), [23] and Daye Formation (Guizhou, China), [24] and the Smithian aged assemblages of the Vikinghøgda Formation (Spitsbergen, Norway), [25] [26] [27] and Thaynes Group (western United States), [28] [29] and Helongshan Formation (Anhui, China), [30] and several Early Triassic layers of the Sulphur Mountain Formation (western Canada). [31] Ray-finned fishes diversified after the mass extinction and reached peak diversity during the Middle Triassic. This diversification is, however, obscured by a taphonomic megabias (Spathian-Bithynian Gap, SBG) [32] during the late Olenekian and early middle Anisian. The earliest large durophagous neopterygian is known from the SBG, suggesting an early onset of the Triassic actinopterygian revolution. [33]

Olenekian chondrichthyan fishes include hybodonts and neoselachians, [25] [34] [35] but also a few surviving lineages of eugeneodontid holocephalians, [36] a mainly Palaeozoic group that went extinct during the Early Triassic.

Marine temnospondyl amphibians, such as the superficially crocodile-shaped trematosaurids Aphaneramma and Wantzosaurus , show wide geographic ranges during the Induan and Olenekian ages. Their fossils are found in Greenland, Spitsbergen, Pakistan and Madagascar. [37] Others, such as Trematosaurus , inhabited freshwater environments and were less widespread.

The first marine reptiles appeared during the Olenekian. [37] Hupehsuchia, Ichthyopterygia and Sauropterygia are among the first marine reptiles to enter the scene (e.g. Cartorhynchus , Chaohusaurus , Utatsusaurus , Hupehsuchus , Grippia , Omphalosaurus , Corosaurus ). Sauropterygians and ichthyosaurs ruled the oceans during the Mesozoic Era.

An example of an exceptionally diverse Early Triassic assemblage is the Paris biota, fossils of which were discovered near Paris, Idaho [38] and other nearby sites in Idaho and Nevada. [39] The Paris Biota was deposited in the wake of the SSBM and it features at least 7 phyla and 20 distinct metazoan orders, including leptomitid protomonaxonid sponges (previously only known from the Paleozoic), thylacocephalans, crustaceans, nautiloids, ammonoids, coleoids, ophiuroids, crinoids, and vertebrates. [40] Such diverse assemblages show that organisms diversified wherever and whenever climatic and environmental conditions ameliorated.

Smithian–Spathian boundary event

Early Triassic and Anisian marine predators: 1. Wantzosaurus, 2. Fadenia, 3. Saurichthys, 4. Rebellatrix, 5. Hovasaurus, 6. Birgeria, 7. Aphaneramma, 8. Bobasatrania, 9. Hybodontiformes, 10. Mylacanthus, 11. Tanystropheus, 12. Corosaurus, 13. Ticinepomis, 14. Mixosaurus, 15. Cymbospondylidae, 16. Neoselachii, 17. Omphalosaurus skeleton, 18. Placodus Triassic marine vertebrate apex predators.png
Early Triassic and Anisian marine predators: 1. Wantzosaurus , 2. Fadenia , 3. Saurichthys , 4. Rebellatrix , 5. Hovasaurus , 6. Birgeria , 7. Aphaneramma , 8. Bobasatrania , 9. Hybodontiformes, 10. Mylacanthus , 11. Tanystropheus , 12. Corosaurus , 13. Ticinepomis , 14. Mixosaurus , 15. Cymbospondylidae, 16. Neoselachii, 17. Omphalosaurus skeleton, 18. Placodus

An important extinction event occurred during the Olenekian age of the Early Triassic, near the Smithian and Spathian subage boundary. The main victims of this Smithian–Spathian boundary event, often called the Smithian–Spathian extinction, [41] were 'disaster taxa': Palaeozoic species that survived the Permian–Triassic extinction event and flourished in the immediate aftermath of the extinction; [42] ammonoids, conodonts, and radiolarians in particular suffered drastic biodiversity losses, [43] [42] which is accentuated, among others, by the cosmopolitan distribution of the ammonoid Anasibirites . [44] [45] Marine reptiles, such as ichthyopterygians and sauropterygians, diversified after the extinction. [37]

The flora was also affected significantly. It changed from lycopod dominated (e.g. Pleuromeia ) during the Dienerian and Smithian subages to gymnosperm and pteridophyte dominated in the Spathian. [46] [13] These vegetation changes are due to global changes in temperature and precipitation. Conifers (gymnosperms) were the dominant plants during most of the Mesozoic. Until recently[ when? ] the existence of this extinction event about 249.4 Ma ago [47] was not recognised. [48]

The Smithian–Spathian boundary extinction was linked to late eruptions of the Siberian Traps, [49] [50] which released warming greenhouse gases, resulting in global warming [51] and in acidification, both on land [52] and in the ocean. [53] [54] A large spike in mercury concentrations relative to total organic carbon, much like during the Permian-Triassic extinction, has been suggested as another contributor to the extinction, [55] although this is controversial and has been disputed by other research that suggests elevated mercury levels already existed by the middle Spathian. [56] Prior to the Smithian-Spathian Boundary extinction event, a flat gradient of latitudinal species richness is observed, suggesting that warmer temperatures extended into higher latitudes, allowing extension of geographic ranges of species adapted to warmer temperatures, and displacement or extinctions of species adapted to cooler temperatures. [44] Oxygen isotope studies on conodonts have revealed that temperatures rose in the first 2 million years of the Triassic, ultimately reaching sea surface temperatures of up to 40 °C (104 °F) in the tropics during the Smithian. [57] The extinction itself occurred during a subsequent drop in global temperatures (ca. 8°C over a geologically short period) in the latest Smithian; however, temperature alone cannot account for the Smithian-Spathian boundary extinction, because several factors were at play. [13] [47] An alternative explanation for the extinction event hypothesises the biotic crisis took place not at the Smithian-Spathian boundary but shortly before, during the Late Smithian Thermal Maximum (LSTM), with the Smithian-Spathian boundary itself being associated with cessation of intrusive magmatic activity of the Siberian Traps, [58] along with significant global cooling, [59] [60] after which a gradual biotic recovery took place over the early and middle Spathian, [58] along with a decline in continental weathering [61] and a rejuvenation of ocean circulation. [62]

In the ocean, many large and mobile species moved away from the tropics, but large fish remained, [29] and amongst the immobile species such as molluscs, only the ones that could cope with the heat survived; half the bivalves disappeared. [63] Conodonts decreased in average size as a result of the extinction. [64] On land, the tropics were nearly devoid of life, [65] with exceptionally arid conditions recorded in Iberia and other parts of Europe then at low latitude. [66] Many big, active animals returned to the tropics, and plants recolonised on land, only when temperatures returned to normal.

There is evidence that life had recovered rapidly, at least locally. This is indicated by sites that show exceptionally high biodiversity (e.g. the earliest Spathian Paris Biota), [38] [39] which suggest that food webs were complex and comprised several trophic levels.

Notable formations

Related Research Articles

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Approximately 251.9 million years ago, the Permian–Triassicextinction event forms the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geologic periods, and with them the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. It is Earth's most severe known extinction event, with the extinction of 57% of biological families, 83% of genera, 81% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. It is also the greatest known mass extinction of insects. It is the greatest of the "Big Five" mass extinctions of the Phanerozoic. There is evidence for one to three distinct pulses, or phases, of extinction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triassic</span> First period of the Mesozoic Era 252–201 million years ago

The Triassic is a geologic period and system which spans 50.5 million years from the end of the Permian Period 251.902 million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Jurassic Period 201.4 Mya. The Triassic is the first and shortest period of the Mesozoic Era and the seventh period of the Phanerozoic Eon. Both the start and end of the period are marked by major extinction events. The Triassic Period is subdivided into three epochs: Early Triassic, Middle Triassic and Late Triassic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ichthyopterygia</span> Extinct order of reptiles

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anisian</span> Stage of the Triassic

In the geologic timescale, the Anisian is the lower stage or earliest age of the Middle Triassic series or epoch and lasted from 247.2 million years ago until 242 million years ago. The Anisian Age succeeds the Olenekian Age and precedes the Ladinian Age.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wuchiapingian</span> Eighth stage of the Permian

In the geologic timescale, the Wuchiapingian or Wujiapingian is an age or stage of the Permian. It is also the lower or earlier of two subdivisions of the Lopingian Epoch or Series. The Wuchiapingian spans the time between 259.51 and 254.14 million years ago (Ma). It was preceded by the Capitanian and followed by the Changhsingian.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Changhsingian</span> Ninth and last stage of the Permain

In the geologic time scale, the Changhsingian or Changxingian is the latest age or uppermost stage of the Permian. It is also the upper or latest of two subdivisions of the Lopingian Epoch or Series. The Changhsingian lasted from 254.14 to 251.9 Ma ago. It is preceded by the Wuchiapingian age/stage and is followed by the Induan age/stage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early Triassic</span> First of three epochs of the Triassic Period

The Early Triassic is the first of three epochs of the Triassic Period of the geologic timescale. It spans the time between 251.9 Ma and 247.2 Ma. Rocks from this epoch are collectively known as the Lower Triassic Series, which is a unit in chronostratigraphy. The Early Triassic is the oldest epoch of the Mesozoic Era. It is preceded by the Lopingian Epoch and followed by the Middle Triassic Epoch. The Early Triassic is divided into the Induan and Olenekian ages. The Induan is subdivided into the Griesbachian and Dienerian subages and the Olenekian is subdivided into the Smithian and Spathian subages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Middle Triassic</span> Second epoch of the Triassic period

In the geologic timescale, the Middle Triassic is the second of three epochs of the Triassic period or the middle of three series in which the Triassic system is divided in chronostratigraphy. The Middle Triassic spans the time between 247.2 Ma and 237 Ma. It is preceded by the Early Triassic Epoch and followed by the Late Triassic Epoch. The Middle Triassic is divided into the Anisian and Ladinian ages or stages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Late Triassic</span> Third and final epoch of the Triassic Period

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Induan</span> First age of the Early Triassic epoch

The Induan is the first age of the Early Triassic epoch in the geologic timescale, or the lowest stage of the Lower Triassic series in chronostratigraphy. It spans the time between 251.9 Ma and 251.2 Ma. The Induan is sometimes divided into the Griesbachian and the Dienerian subages or substages. The Induan is preceded by the Changhsingian and is followed by the Olenekian.

Anasibirites is an extinct genus of ammonoid cephalopod from the lower upper Smithian Wasatchites distractus Zone.

Axelia is an extinct genus of prehistoric lobe-finned fish, which belonged to the family of Coelacanthidae. It lived during the Smithian age of the Early Triassic epoch in what is now Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Fossils were found in the "Fish Niveau" of the Lusitaniadalen Member of the Vikinghøgda Formation.

Wimania is an extinct genus of coelacanth lobe-finned fish that lived during the Early Triassic epoch in what is now Svalbard. Fossils were found in the Smithian aged "Fish Niveau" of the Lusitaniadalen Member of the Vikinghøgda Formation. Wimania belongs to the family Coelacanthidae. It is named after Carl Wiman.

<i>Mylacanthus</i> Extinct genus of fishes

Mylacanthus is an extinct genus of prehistoric coelacanth lobe-finned fish that lived during the Smithian age of the Early Triassic epoch in what is now Svalbard.

Sassenia is an extinct genus of prehistoric coelacanth lobe-finned fish that lived during the Early Triassic epoch in what is now East Greenland and Svalbard.

Scleracanthus is an extinct genus of prehistoric coelacanth lobe-finned fish. It lived during the Early Triassic epoch in what is now Spitsbergen, Svalbard.

The Vikinghøgda Formation is a geologic formation in Svalbard, Norway. It preserves fossils dating back to the Early Triassic (Griesbachian-Spathian) period. It is split into three members, from oldest to youngest: the Deltadalen Member (Induan), Lusitaniadalen Member (Smithian), and Vendomdalen Member (Spathian). The formation can be found in central Spitsbergen, southern Spitsbergen, as well as the smaller islands of Barentsøya and Edgeøya. The type locality is positioned in the vicinity of Vikinghøgda and Sticky Keep, two low peaks along the southeast edge of Sassendalen in Spitsbergen. The two upper members of the Vikinghøgda Formation were previously grouped together as the Sticky Keep Formation.

<i>Tirolites</i> Extinct genus of ammonites

Tirolites is an extinct genus of ammonoid cephalopod. Its first appearance defines the Smithian-Spathian boundary in the Olenekian stage of the Early Triassic epoch. It is prominent in the Paris biota.

The Paris biota is an exceptionally diverse Early Triassic fossil assemblage described in 2017 from the Lower Shale Member of the Thaynes Group. It was first discovered in Paris Canyon, west of the town of Paris in Bear Lake County, southeastern Idaho, United States. This biota was later also found in coeval and slightly younger beds in northeastern Nevada and Bear Lake and Caribou counties, southeastern Idaho.

References

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