The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History

Last updated

The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History
Sixth-extinction-nonfiction-book-kobert.jpg
Author Elizabeth Kolbert
Country
  • United States
  • United Kingdom
LanguageEnglish
Subject
GenreNonfiction popular science
Published2014 (Henry Holt and Company)
Media typePrint
Pages319
ISBN 978-0-8050-9299-8
576.8/4
LC Class QE721.2.E97 K65 2014

The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History is a 2014 non-fiction book written by Elizabeth Kolbert and published by Henry Holt and Company. The book argues that the Earth is in the midst of a modern, man-made, sixth extinction. In the book, Kolbert chronicles previous mass extinction events, and compares them to the accelerated, widespread extinctions during our present time. She also describes specific species extinguished by humans, as well as the ecologies surrounding prehistoric and near-present extinction events. The author received the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction for the book in 2015. [1]

Contents

The target audience is the general reader, and scientific descriptions are rendered in understandable prose. The writing blends explanations of her treks to remote areas with interviews of scientists, researchers, and guides, without advocating a position, in pursuit of objectivity. Hence, the sixth mass extinction theme is applied to flora and fauna existing in diverse habitats, such as the Panamanian rainforest, the Great Barrier Reef, the Andes, Bikini Atoll, city zoos, and the author's own backyard. The book also applies this theme to a number of other habitats and organisms throughout the world. After researching the current mainstream view of the relevant peer-reviewed science, Kolbert estimates flora and fauna loss by the end of the 21st century to be between 20 and 50 percent "of all living species on earth". [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7]

Anthropocene

Kolbert equates current, general unawareness of this issue to previous widespread disbelief of it during the centuries preceding the late 1700s; at that time, it was believed that prehistoric mass extinctions had never occurred. It was also believed that there were no natural forces—including biological ones—powerful enough to extinguish species en masse . Likewise, in our own time, the possible finality presented by this issue results in denialism. However, scientific studies have shown that human behavior disrupts Earth's balanced and interconnected systems, "putting our own survival in danger." Consequently, the Earth's systems currently affected are the global atmosphere, the water cycle, the ocean's heat absorption, ocean acidity (and its effect on coral reefs), soil moisture and drought conditions, plant destruction by pests/non-indigenous fauna or heat stress, heat regulation by the Earth's ice, and so on.

The human species contributes to this disruption—even without intending to—because of our innate capabilities to alter the planet at this stage of our cultural evolution; for instance, we now can harness energy from beneath the Earth's surface. Homo sapiens also can adapt relatively quickly to almost any environment on this planet's surface. Other species, however, have a hard time relocating to new, suitable habitats. They are unable to migrate ahead of current rapid ecological changes or are hampered by artificial barriers such as roadways, cityscapes, and suburban sprawl, which increase discontinuity between viable habitats throughout the world. [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

Background

Elizabeth Kolbert is a science writer for The New Yorker magazine. She is the author of Field Notes from a Catastrophe , as well as several other books. Her writing focuses on the effects of humans and civilization on our planet's ecosystem. Much of her writing involves her experiences of various locations, as noted above. Previously, she was a reporter for The New York Times . [2] [4] Kolbert resides in Williamstown, Massachusetts, with her husband and children, and she writes in her home office across from Mount Greylock in Massachusetts. [8] Kolbert has been interviewed by national news and media organizations. [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]

Kolbert's decision to write this book was influenced by a 2008 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences paper, titled, "Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from the world of amphibians". Subsequently, Kolbert wrote an article for The New Yorker, titled (similarly to her eventual book), "The Sixth Extinction?" [14] Researching this article involved amphibian hunting in Panama. She then realized, "I hadn't scratched the surface, that there was a book there." [7] [15]

Summary of chapters

Chapter 1: The Sixth Extinction

The ancestors of frogs crawled out of water around 400 million years ago. 250 million years ago, frogs were the earliest representation of what would become the modern amphibian orders. Amphibians have been on Earth for longer than mammals or birds; they were even here before dinosaurs. Recently, it has been reported that the extinction rate of frogs is increasing. Based on observed extinction rates far beyond expected background extinction rates, we can predict that an event of a catastrophic nature is headed our way. [16] A decade ago, Panamanian golden frogs were plentiful in numbers and easy to find around Panama. However, within the past couple of years, the frogs started to disappear. Kolbert states that studies by the National Zoological Park in Washington, DC, and a mycologist at the University of Maine, have identified the reason for the increased mortality of Panamanian frogs as a type of Chytrid fungus. [17] However, Chytrid fungi are not naturally found in Panama. This left a puzzling question: how did the fungus get to Panama? Evidence indicates that humans were instrumental in how the fungus traveled. Kolbert uses the frog-fungus relationship as a symbol of how humans are introducing invasive species to various environments, where native species would normally have the proper distribution of alleles for their environment.

Chapter 2: The Mastodon's Molars

Kolbert explains how fossils of the American mastodon (Mammut americanum) shaped Georges Cuvier's views on catastrophism. According to Cuvier, there was no reason the mastodon should have died out. The mastodon was large enough to avoid predation, had large enough teeth to consume an abrasive diet, and had other phenotypes that should have increased its chances of survival. Cuvier concluded there must have been sudden and violent natural catastrophes that caused mass extinctions of viable species. [18] Kolbert uses the mastodon as a symbol for the idea that catastrophe is an important mechanism of extinction.

Chapter 3: The Original Penguin

The great auk was a large flightless bird that lived in the Northern Hemisphere. It had a large, intricately grooved beak. When the first settlers arrived in Iceland, the auk population was probably in the millions. However, the settlers found the auks to be “very good and nourishing meat.” They also used their oily bodies for fuel and fish bait, and their feathers for stuffing mattresses. [19] Despite attempts at protecting the species, by 1844, the last auks were killed. Kolbert uses the great auk as a symbol of how human overexploitation of resources is another important mechanism of extinction.

Chapter 4: The Luck of the Ammonites

Kolbert explains that the main cause of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event was not the impact of the asteroid itself. It was the dust created by the impact. The debris from the impact incinerated anything in its path. [20] She states that it is impossible to estimate the full extent of the various species that died out due to this catastrophe. However, one class of animals we know did die out because of the effects of the asteroid's impact, are the ammonites. Kolbert explains that, even though ammonites were 'fit' for their current environment, a single moment can completely change which traits are advantageous and which are lethal. [21]

Chapter 5: Welcome to the Anthropocene

Kolbert uses the extinction of graptolites and other clades to explain glaciation as a mechanism for extinction. She then explains how, when carbon dioxide levels in the air are high, there typically is an accompanying increase in temperatures and sea level. Right around the time graptolites became extinct, carbon dioxide levels dropped. Temperatures fell and sea levels plummeted. This caused a change in the chemistry of the ocean, which had a devastating impact on life forms. [22] Kolbert states that human activity has transformed between a third and a half of the land surface on the planet. We have dammed most of the major rivers of the world, increased levels of nitrogen higher than can be fixed naturally by terrestrial ecosystems, used in more than half of the world's readily accessible freshwater run-off, removed more than one-third of the primary producers of the oceans' coastal waters and changed the composition of the atmosphere by deforestation and fossil fuel combustion. [23]

Chapter 6: The Sea Around Us

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, we have seen increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere at an alarming rate. Studies show we have added approximately 365 billion tons of it by burning fossil fuels, and an additional 180 billion tons as a result of deforestation. We add another 9 billion tons or so a year, an amount that has been increasing by 6 percent annually. Essentially, we have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air to higher than it has been in the last several million years. [24] Some of this carbon dioxide is being absorbed by our oceans to create carbonic acid. This lowers the pH of our ocean and kills much of our marine life. Kolbert uses the drastic decline in life forms around the Castello Aragonese as a warning sign of what is to come if we continue to increase carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. [25]

Chapter 7: Dropping Acid

Coral reefs support thousands of species by providing food and protection. Subsequently, many species have co-evolved with corals. Due to ocean acidification, corals may become extinct by the end of the century. Before the Industrial Revolution, underwater reefs had an aragonite saturation state between 4 and 5. However, if current emission intensities remain as they are today, by 2060, there will no longer be a region above 3.5. This will lead to an increase in the energy needed for calcification. [26] This extra energy that will eventually be expended on calcification is currently vital to corals, as they use it to recover from being eaten away by marine species and battered by waves. Thus, ocean acidification is a mechanism of extinction.

Chapter 8: The Forest and the Trees

Global warming is most commonly seen as a threat to cold-loving species. As temperatures rise, the ice at the North Pole and South Pole will melt. Any living thing that depends on the ice will be faced with extreme challenges that could ultimately drive them to extinction. [27] Kolbert points out that the poles are not the only places affected by global warming, and that other areas have much higher latitudinal diversity gradients. She discusses the work of scientists who have used measures of species-area relationships to model the possible effects of global warming. The extent to which species are mobile and can relocate to new areas, in response to shifting climate conditions, is predicted to be a significant factor in possible species extinction. This has particular importance for trees and other plant species. Even more difficult to estimate is the extent to which ecological communities of species will be able to tolerate disruptive changes. [28]

Chapter 9: Islands on Dry Land

Kolbert points out how everything in life is interconnected, and discusses the importance of patch dynamics. Over time, the fragmentation of environmental areas leads to a decrease in the number of species in an area. This occurs, in part, because the size of such "islands" is too small to support a stable number of species members. Also, smaller populations are more vulnerable to these changing events. In addition, the disconnection of islands makes it more difficult for species to reach and recolonize them. One researcher describes this as "an obstacle course for the dispersal of biodiversity." [29] : 189  Kolbert also notes that the habits of many species can be highly specialized to their environment. She explains that one minor change can cause a domino effect in various ecological systems. [30] [31] [32]

Chapter 10: The New Pangaea

Kolbert points out that there is an evolutionary arms race, in which each species must be equipped to defend against their potential predators and need to be more fit than their competition. A species has no defense if it encounters a new fungus, virus, or bacterium. This can be extremely deadly, as it was in the case of the American bats killed by the psychrophilic fungus Geomyces destructans . [33] Another example of this occurred in the 1800s. The American chestnut was the dominant deciduous tree in eastern American forests. Then, a fungus ( Cryphonectria parasitica ) started to cause chestnut blight. It was nearly 100 percent lethal. This fungus was unintentionally imported to the US by humans. [34] Kolbert then explains that global trade and travel are creating a virtual "Pangaea", in which species of all kinds are being redistributed beyond historical geographic barriers. This furthers the first chapter's idea that invasive species are a mechanism of extinction.

Chapter 11: The Rhino Gets an Ultrasound

The Sumatran Rhino was once so abundant in numbers it was considered an agricultural pest. However, as Southeast Asia's forests were cut down, the rhino's habitat became fragmented. In the 1900s, the rhino population had shrunk to just a few hundred. A captive breeding program was widely regarded as a failure and resulted in the deaths of several rhinos, and it was decades before a single baby was born. Today, there are only one hundred living Sumatran rhinos. [35] Kolbert uses this rhino species to illustrate habitat fragmentation as another mechanism of extinction.

Chapter 12: The Madness Gene

Europe was home to the Neanderthals for at least 100,000 years. Then, about 30,000 years ago, the Neanderthals vanished. Fossil records show that modern humans arrived in Europe 40,000 years ago. Within 10,000 years, Neanderthals were bred out. [36] Through molecular sequencing, scientists have found that there is one to four percent Neanderthal DNA in all non-African humans. This indicates that humans and Neanderthals interbred, and the resulting hybrids reproduced. The pattern continued until Neanderthals were literally bred out. [37] Kolbert states there is every reason to believe that Neanderthals would still exist if it weren't for Homo sapiens.

Chapter 13: The Things with Feathers

Kolbert concludes with hope in humanity, pointing to various efforts to conserve or preserve species. Whether meaning to or not, we are deciding which evolutionary pathways will be shut off forever, and which can be left open to flourish.

Sources

Some sources for the book include The Song of the Dodo by David Quammen, The Ghost With Trembling Wings by Scott Weidensaul, and reports from Edward O. Wilson, a biologist. The pioneering studies of naturalist Georges Cuvier and geologist Charles Lyell are also referenced. The book's title is similar to a 1995 book title, The Sixth Extinction by Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin. Also included are excerpts from interviews with a forest ecologist, atmospheric scientist Ken Caldeira, wildlife and conservation experts, a modern-day geologist, and fungus researchers in New England and New York State. [4] [6]

Awards and honors

Bill Gates named the book to his 2014 Summer Reading List. [42]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cenozoic</span> Third era of the Phanerozoic Eon

The Cenozoic is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66 million years of Earth's history. It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds, and angiosperms. It is the latest of three geological eras, preceded by the Mesozoic and Paleozoic. The Cenozoic started with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, when many species, including the non-avian dinosaurs, became extinct in an event attributed by most experts to the impact of a large asteroid or other celestial body, the Chicxulub impactor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extinction event</span> Widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth

An extinction event is a widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth. Such an event is identified by a sharp fall in the diversity and abundance of multicellular organisms. It occurs when the rate of extinction increases with respect to the background extinction rate and the rate of speciation. Estimates of the number of major mass extinctions in the last 540 million years range from as few as five to more than twenty. These differences stem from disagreement as to what constitutes a "major" extinction event, and the data chosen to measure past diversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Holocene extinction</span> Ongoing extinction event caused by human activity

The Holocene extinction, or Anthropocene extinction, is the ongoing extinction event caused by humans during the Holocene epoch. These extinctions span numerous families of plants and animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates, and affecting not just terrestrial species but also large sectors of marine life. With widespread degradation of biodiversity hotspots, such as coral reefs and rainforests, as well as other areas, the vast majority of these extinctions are thought to be undocumented, as the species are undiscovered at the time of their extinction, which goes unrecorded. The current rate of extinction of species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than natural background extinction rates and is increasing. During the past 100–200 years, biodiversity loss and species extinction have accelerated, to the point that most conservation biologists now believe that human activity has either produced a period of mass extinction, or is on the cusp of doing so. As such, after the "Big Five" mass extinctions, the Holocene extinction event has also been referred to as the sixth mass extinction or sixth extinction; given the recent recognition of the Capitanian mass extinction, the term seventh mass extinction has also been proposed for the Holocene extinction event.

The Phanerozoic is the current and the latest of the four geologic eons in the Earth's geologic time scale, covering the time period from 538.8 million years ago to the present. It is the eon during which abundant animal and plant life has proliferated, diversified and colonized various niches on the Earth's surface, beginning with the Cambrian period when animals first developed hard shells that can be clearly preserved in the fossil record. The time before the Phanerozoic, collectively called the Precambrian, is now divided into the Hadean, Archaean and Proterozoic eons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extinction</span> Termination of a taxon by the death of its last member

Extinction is the termination of a taxon by the death of its last member. A taxon may become functionally extinct before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to reproduce and recover. Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" after a period of apparent absence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Georges Cuvier</span> French naturalist, zoologist and paleontologist (1769–1832)

Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric, Baron Cuvier, known as Georges Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist, sometimes referred to as the "founding father of paleontology". Cuvier was a major figure in natural sciences research in the early 19th century and was instrumental in establishing the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology through his work in comparing living animals with fossils.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anthropocene</span> Proposed geologic epoch for present time

The Anthropocene ( ) is a proposed geological epoch dating from the commencement of significant human impact on Earth until now. It affects Earth's geology, landscape, limnology, ecosystems and climate. The effects of human activities on Earth can be seen for example in biodiversity loss and climate change. Various start dates for the Anthropocene have been proposed, ranging from the beginning of the Neolithic Revolution, to as recently as the 1960s as a starting date.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eldey</span> Island of Iceland

Eldey is a small, uninhabited island about 13 kilometres off the coast of the Reykjanes Peninsula in southwest Iceland. Located west-southwest of Reykjavík, the island of Eldey covers an area of about 3 hectares, and rises to a height of 77 metres (253 ft). Its sheer cliffs are home to large numbers of birds, including one of the largest northern gannet colonies in the world, with around 16,000 pairs. This colony can now be watched live via two webcams that are located on top of the island.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human impact on the environment</span> Impact of human life on Earth and environment

Human impact on the environment refers to changes to biophysical environments and to ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources caused directly or indirectly by humans. Modifying the environment to fit the needs of society is causing severe effects including global warming, environmental degradation, mass extinction and biodiversity loss, ecological crisis, and ecological collapse. Some human activities that cause damage to the environment on a global scale include population growth, neoliberal economic policies and rapid economic growth, overconsumption, overexploitation, pollution, and deforestation. Some of the problems, including global warming and biodiversity loss, have been proposed as representing catastrophic risks to the survival of the human species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ocean acidification</span> Decrease of pH levels in the ocean

Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's ocean. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are the primary cause of ocean acidification, with atmospheric carbon dioxide levels exceeding 410 ppm. CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This chemical reaction produces carbonic acid which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion. The presence of free hydrogen ions lowers the pH of the ocean, increasing acidity. Marine calcifying organisms, such as mollusks and corals, are especially vulnerable because they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons.

<i>Future Evolution</i>

Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman. He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon's After Man: A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells's The Time Machine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elizabeth Kolbert</span> American journalist, author, and scholar

Elizabeth Kolbert is an American journalist, author, and visiting fellow at Williams College.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in popular culture</span>

References to climate change in popular culture have existed since the late 20th century and increased in the 21st century. Climate change, its impacts, and related human-environment interactions have been featured in nonfiction books and documentaries, but also literature, film, music, television shows and video games.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Panamanian golden frog</span> Species of amphibian

The Panamanian golden frog, also known as Cerro Campana stubfoot toad and other names, is a species of toad endemic to Panama. Panamanian golden frogs inhabit the streams along the mountainous slopes of the Cordilleran cloud forests of west-central Panama. While the IUCN lists it as Critically Endangered, it may in fact have been extinct in the wild since 2007. Individuals have been collected for breeding in captivity in a bid to preserve the species. The alternative common name, Zetek's golden frog, and the epithet zeteki both commemorate the entomologist James Zetek.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endangered species</span> Species of organisms facing a very high risk of extinction

An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, and invasive species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List lists the global conservation status of many species, and various other agencies assess the status of species within particular areas. Many nations have laws that protect conservation-reliant species which, for example, forbid hunting, restrict land development, or create protected areas. Some endangered species are the target of extensive conservation efforts such as captive breeding and habitat restoration.

<i>Field Notes from a Catastrophe</i> 2006 book by Elizabeth Kolbert

Field Notes from a Catastrophe: Man, Nature, and Climate Change is a non-fiction environmental science book by Elizabeth Kolbert that was published by Bloomsbury Publishing in 2006. The book documents a series of scientific observations and political processes, bringing attention to the causes and effects of global climate change. In this book, Kolbert is able to make scientific developments accessible to a very wide audience.

<i>Ecnomiohyla rabborum</i> Species of frog in the family Hylidae

Ecnomiohyla rabborum, commonly known as Rabbs' fringe-limbed treefrog, is a possibly extinct species of frog in the family Hylidae. They were relatively large frogs that inhabited the forest canopies of central Panama. Like other members of the genus Ecnomiohyla, they were capable of gliding by spreading their enormous and fully webbed hands and feet during descent. The males of the species were highly territorial and would guard water-filled tree holes used for breeding. They were also the ones responsible for guarding and caring for the young, including providing food. They were the only known species of frog where the tadpoles derived nutrition by feeding on the skin cells of their fathers.

"The Lost Worlds of Planet Earth" is the ninth episode of the American documentary television series Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey. It premiered on May 4, 2014 on Fox, and aired on May 5, 2014 on National Geographic Channel. The episode was directed by Brannon Braga, written by Ann Druyan and Steven Soter, and featured the voice of Amanda Seyfried as geologist Marie Tharp. The episode explores the history of the Earth starting with the period of the Late Heavy Bombardment, approximately "3.8 to 4.1 billion years ago during which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, and the Earth were battered by space debris." Host Neil deGrasse Tyson then delves into the biography of the Earth, expressed "in its continents, oceans and life living on and in them, saying 'the past is another planet,'" alluding to how plate tectonics have shaped the Earth over millions of years.

<i>Racing Extinction</i> 2015 documentary film

Racing Extinction is a 2015 documentary about the ongoing anthropogenic mass extinction of species and the efforts from scientists, activists, and journalists to document it by Oscar-winning director Louie Psihoyos, who directed the documentary The Cove (2009). The film received one Oscar nomination, for Best Original Song, and one Emmy nomination for Exceptional Merit in Documentary Filmmaking. Racing Extinction premiered at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival, followed by limited theater release, with worldwide broadcast premiere on Discovery Channel in 220 countries or territories on December 2, 2015.

<i>Under a White Sky</i> 2021 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert

Under a White Sky: The Nature of the Future is a 2021 environmental book by Elizabeth Kolbert. The book follows many of the themes she explored in The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History.

References

  1. ↑ http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2015-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer citation
  2. 1 2 3 Gore, Al (vice president of the United States from 1993 to 2001) (February 10, 2014). "Without a Trace. 'The Sixth Extinction,' by Elizabeth Kolbert". New York Times Sunday Book Review . New York City. Retrieved July 10, 2014.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  3. 1 2 Schulz, Kathryn (February 9, 2014). "The Sixth Extinction Examines Human Overkillers and the Next Great Die-Off". New York Magazine . New York City: New York Media. Archived from the original on February 11, 2019. Retrieved February 13, 2014.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Kakutani, Michiko (February 2, 2014). "Cataclysm Has Arrived: Man's Inhumanity to Nature". The New York Times. New York City. Retrieved February 13, 2014.
  5. 1 2 Hannibal, Mary Ellen (February 9, 2014). "Sixth Extinction". HuffPost . New York.
  6. 1 2 3 Darwall, Rupert (February 14, 2014). "Book Review: 'The Sixth Extinction' by Elizabeth Kolbert". The Wall Street Journal. New York: Dow Jones & Company. Retrieved February 14, 2014.
  7. 1 2 Anthony, Andrew (March 3, 2014). "Elizabeth Kolbert: 'The whole world is becoming a kind of zoo'". The Guardian – Green. London: Guardian News and Media Limited . Retrieved February 13, 2014.
  8. ↑ "Elizabeth Kolbert". Henry Holt & Co. Retrieved February 13, 2014.
  9. ↑ Dreifus, Claudia (February 10, 2014). "Chasing the Biggest Story on Earth". The New York Times . Archived from the original on September 3, 2014. Retrieved October 8, 2020.
  10. ↑ "In The World's 'Sixth Extinction,' Are Humans The Asteroid?". NPR . February 12, 2014. Retrieved October 8, 2020.
  11. ↑ "Elizabeth Kolbert". The Daily Show . Season 19. Episode 62. February 11, 2014. Comedy Central.
  12. ↑ CBS This Morning. CBS News. February 9, 2014.[ dead link ]
  13. ↑ "The Earth's 'Sixth Extinction' May Be One Of Our Own Making". NPR . February 11, 2014. Retrieved October 8, 2020.
  14. ↑ Kolbert, Elizabeth (May 25, 2009). "The Sixth Extinction?". The New Yorker . New York City: Condé Nast . Retrieved November 21, 2018.
  15. ↑ Wake, D. B.; Vredenburg, V. T. (2008). "Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from the world of amphibians". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (Suppl 1): 11466–73. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10511466W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0801921105 . PMC   2556420 . PMID   18695221. PNAS
  16. ↑ Alroy, John (2009). "Speciation and Extinction in the Fossil Record or North American Mammals" (PDF). In Roger K. Butlin; Jon R. Bridle; Dolph Schluter (eds.). Speciation and Patterns of Diversity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 310–23. S2CID   39250988. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 7, 2019. Retrieved June 7, 2019.
  17. ↑ Johnson, Paul. "Amphibian Chytrid Fungus". US Department of the Interior. National Park Service. Retrieved April 27, 2014.
  18. ↑ Cuvier, Georges. "Elegy of Lamarck". Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. 20: 1–22.
  19. ↑ Gaskell, Jeeremy (March 15, 2001). Who Killed the Great Auk? . New York: Oxford University Press. p.  87. ISBN   978-0198564782.
  20. ↑ Officer, Charles; Page, Jake (2008). Rhodes, Frank H. T.; Stone, Richard O.; Malamud, Bruce D. (eds.). Language of the Earth: A Literary Anthology (2nd ed.). Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons. p. 183. ISBN   978-1-4051-6067-4.
  21. ↑ Zalasiewics, Jan (November 2, 2009). The Earth After Us: What Legacy Will Humans Leave in the Rocks?. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 2008. ISBN   978-0199214983.
  22. ↑ Kiessling, Wolfgang; Simpson, Carl (2011). Global Change Biology (First Paperback ed.). New York: Oxford Printing Press. pp. 56–67. ISBN   978-0199214983.
  23. ↑ Zalewicz, Jan (2008). "Are We Now Living in the Anthropocene?". GSA Today (18): 6.
  24. ↑ Sabine, Chris. "PMEL CO2". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory. Retrieved April 28, 2014.
  25. ↑ Kolbert, Elizabeth (April 2011). "The Acid Sea". National Geographic Magazine. National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on January 29, 2019. Retrieved April 26, 2014.
  26. ↑ Fabricus, Katherina; Chris Langdon; Sven Uthicke; Craig Humphrey; Sam Noonan; Glenn De'ath; Remy Okazaki; Nancy Muehllehner; Martin S. Glass; Janice M. Lough (May 29, 2011). "Losers and Winners in Coral Reefs Acclimatized to Elevated Carbon Dioxide Concentrations". Nature Climate Change. 1 (3): 165–169. Bibcode:2011NatCC...1..165F. doi:10.1038/nclimate1122.
  27. ↑ Barnosky, Anthony (2009). Heatstroke: Nature in an Age of Global Warming. Washington, D.C: Island Press/ShearwaterBooks. pp.  55–56. ISBN   978-1597261975.
  28. ↑ Tripati, Arahdna; Eagle, Robert; Roberts, Christopher. (June 28, 2009). "Coupling of CO2 and Ice Sheet Stability Over Major Climate Transitions of the Last 20 Million Years". Science. 326 (5958): 1394–1397. Bibcode:2009Sci...326.1394T. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.419.8045 . doi:10.1126/science.1178296. PMID   19815724. S2CID   21634733.
  29. ↑ Kolbert, Elizabeth (2014). The sixth extinction: an unnatural history . New York: Henry Holt and Co. ISBN   9780805092998.
  30. ↑ Bierregaard, Richard; Gascon, Claude; Mesquita, Rita; Lovejoy, Tomas. (September 2001). Lessons from Amazonia The Ecology and Conservation of a Fragmented. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. p. 41. ISBN   978-0300084832.
  31. ↑ Wright, Emma (December 9, 2010). "Army Ant Camp Followers". Conservation: The Environment and Food Security. Retrieved April 29, 2014.
  32. ↑ Ellis, Erle; Ramankutty, Navin (2008). "Putting People in the Map: Anthropogenic Biomes of the World" (PDF). Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 6 (8): 439–447. doi: 10.1890/070062 .
  33. ↑ Ricciardi, Anthony (January 21, 2007). "Are Modern Biological Invasions an Unprecedented Form of Global Change?". Conservation Biology. 21 (2): 329–336. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00615.x . PMID   17391183. S2CID   20838840.
  34. ↑ Rellou, Julia. "Chestnut Blight Fungus (Cryphonectria parasitica)". Introduces Species Project. Retrieved April 28, 2014.
  35. ↑ Welz, Adam (November 27, 2012). "The Dirty War Against Africa's Remaining Rhinos". Yale University Press.
  36. ↑ Callaway, Ewen (2014). "Modern human genomes reveal our inner Neanderthal". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2014.14615. S2CID   87796857.
  37. ↑ Alroy, John (1999). Putting North America's End Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinction in Context. New York: Kluwer Acdamix/Plenum. p. 138.
  38. ↑ "National Book Critics Circle Announces Finalists for Publishing Year 2014". National Book Critics Circle. January 19, 2015. Archived from the original on January 22, 2015. Retrieved January 29, 2015.
  39. ↑ "Library Journal's Best Books of 2014". lj.libraryjournal.com. Archived from the original on June 26, 2015. Retrieved December 4, 2016.
  40. ↑ "Previous Winners". massbook.org. Massachusetts Center for the Book. Retrieved April 4, 2019.
  41. ↑ "The 2015 Pulitzer Prize Winners: General Nonfiction". pulitzer.org. For a distinguished and appropriately documented book of nonfiction by an American author that is not eligible for consideration in any other category, Ten thousand dollars ($10,000). Awarded to "The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History," by Elizabeth Kolbert (Henry Holt), an exploration of nature that forces readers to consider the threat posed by human behavior to a world of astonishing diversity.
  42. ↑ Gates, Bill (July 13, 2014). "6 books I'd recommend". Gates Notes. Retrieved October 8, 2020.

External links below:

Kolbert

Miscellaneous


This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.