Overabundant species

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In biology, overabundant species refers to an excessive number of individuals [1] and occurs when the normal population density has been exceeded. Increase in animal populations is influenced by a variety of factors, some of which include habitat destruction or augmentation by human activity, the introduction of invasive species and the reintroduction of threatened species to protected reserves.

Contents

Population overabundance can have a negative impact on the environment, and in some cases on the public as well. There are various methods through which populations can be controlled such as hunting, contraception, chemical controls, disease and genetic modification. Overabundant species is an important area of research as it can potentially impact the biodiversity of ecosystems.

Most research studies have examined negative impacts of overabundant species, whereas very few have documented or performed an in-depth examination on positive impacts. As a result, this article focuses on the negative impact of overabundant species.

Definitions

When referring to animals as “overabundant”, various definitions apply. The following classes [2] explore the different associations with overabundance:

  1. The inconvenience of animals in a certain region or area that threatens human livelihood, for example the tropics are considered to contain an overabundant population of the Anopheles mosquito which carries the malaria parasite.
  2. The population density of a preferred species has been reduced by another species population which is then considered as overabundant, for example predator populations of lions and hyenas reducing zebra and wildebeest numbers.
  3. A species population within a specific habitat exceeds the carrying capacity, for example national parks reducing herbivore populations to maintain and manage habitat equilibrium.
  4. The entire equilibrium consisting of animal and plant organisations is already out of balance, for example existing populations colonising new habitat.

Out of all these classifications, class 4 is considered the most significant due to consequent ecological impacts.

Causes

Overabundance may occur naturally, for example after weather events such as a period of high rainfall [3] in which habitat conditions become optimal. However, other contributing factors include:

Anthropogenic disturbances

Natural habitats are altered by human activity resulting in habitat fragmentation, decrease in forest densities and wild fires. [4] Other human disturbances include restrictions on hunting, agricultural land modification [5] and predator removal or control within a region or area. [3] [6] The consequent change in land use and the presence or withdrawal of human influence can trigger a rapid increase in both native and non-native species populations. [4]

Invasive species can be better adapted to specific environments

Invasive species are often overabundant as they outcompete native species for resources such as food and shelter which allows their population to thrive. [7] Other factors influencing population growth include the lack of native predators [8] or the less common presence of the introduced species within native predator habitat. [7]

Overabundance due to translocation of threatened species to protected areas

Some methods in managing threatened species involve reintroducing species to enclosed reserves or island areas. Once these species are introduced, their populations can become overabundant as these areas serve to protect the targeted species against predators and competitors. This occurred for the Bettongia lesueur, the burrowing bettong, which was reintroduced to the Arid Recovery reserve in Australia: their population has increased from 30 to approximately 1532 individuals. Due to the damage within this reserve their population is considered overabundant. [3]

Potential impacts

Overabundant species can have an adverse impact on ecosystems. Within ecosystems food resources and availability, competitors, and species composition can be negatively impacted on. [2]

Impacts of overabundant herbivores

Australian Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) Koala climbing tree.jpg
Australian Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)

A common impact from overabundant herbivores is vegetative damage by overgrazing, where overgrazing refers to the effect of grazing having reached a level where other biodiversity within the ecosystem becomes threatened. Overgrazing can occur in both terrestrial and marine environments and can alter vegetation as well as the composition of vegetation. Population densities and the composition of fauna can also be negatively impacted on. [3] Additionally, permanent ecological damage can be caused by overgrazing before maximum carrying capacity has been reached. [3]

Trophic relationships (i.e. feeding relationships in the ecosystem) can be altered by overabundant species, potentially causing a trophic cascade. Trophic cascades impact vegetation as well as invertebrates (including microorganisms) and birds. [6] Furthermore, predator behaviour and populations may be indirectly affected. [9]

Impacts of overabundant predators

Overabundant predators are considered harmful to local biodiversity as they prey on native species, compete for resources and can introduce disease. They can decrease native mammal populations and, in some cases, can cause species to become extinct which results in a cascading ecological impact. Examples of invasive species include: “cats (Felis catus), rats (Rattus rattus), mongoose (Urva auropunctata), stoats (Mustela erminea)” [8] and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Such species have contributed to the extinction of approximately 58% of modern-day mammals, birds and reptiles. [8]

In Australia, red foxes and feral cats have contributed to many native mammals becoming threatened or extinct which has led to diminished vegetation as foraging mammals have an important ecological role in maintaining a healthy landscape. A particular example is where grassland vegetation diminished to shrub land as a result of seabirds being preyed on by Arctic foxes. Seabirds have an essential ecological role which consists of helping to maintain nutrient levels and soil fertility.

“Invasive predators also threaten 596 species classed as "vulnerable" (217 species), "endangered" (223), or "critically endangered" (156), of which 23 are classed as “possibly extinct.” [8]

Impact on society

It can be very costly to control or eradicate overabundant species. For example, fencing regions as a protective measure against red foxes can cost approximately $10, 000 per kilometre while baiting an area of 35,0002 kilometres can cost about $1.3 million. [10]

Invasive species

According to biology, invasive species are non-native animals that are introduced to a region or area outside of their usual habitat. [11] Invasive species can either be introduced intentionally (if they have a beneficial purpose) or non-intentionally. [12]

In general, invasive species that become overabundant most commonly have a negative impact on local biodiversity [12] with little research having found positive effects. Furthermore, an invasive species may have an initial positive benefit that fades as the species become overabundant and the cost of damage control increases. [13]

Invasive species can negatively impact food web structures. In terms of trophic levels, the initial introduction of a non-native species results in a higher species richness whereby the trophic relationships are altered by the additional resource (if an animal is not a predator at the top of the food chain) and consumer. However, the consequent degree of the impact on the local ecosystem once a species becomes overabundant is case dependent as some invasive species, like the brown tree snake in Guam, have caused numerous extinctions of native fauna, while others have had fewer damaging impacts on the environment. [12]

Costs of invasive species are estimated at millions and billions each year. [14]

A focus on Australian Wildlife

Red fox

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) Vulpes vulpes standing.jpg
Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)

The red fox, Vulpes Vulpes, was introduced to Australia during the 1870s. The established population has thrived in previous years due to the following factors: adaptability to climate conditions, the ability to live in a wide range of habitats including deserts and forests, and lastly human modification of Australian landscapes which are suitable environments for red foxes to thrive in. Red foxes have mainly had a negative impact on Australian fauna, with the exception of regulated rabbit populations. [13] The diet of red foxes include a number of threatened native fauna which has contributed to their population declines and extinctions. [10] [13] Furthermore, populations of native fauna, mammals in particular, have increased through fox population control techniques. 

Rabbit

Rabbits were initially introduced to Australia as pets during colonisation. Rabbits pose a threat to native herbivores as they compete for shared resources. Additionally, overgrazing and modification of habitat vegetation by rabbits allow introduced predators to thrive when hunting. [15]

Rabbits have thrived in Australia as they reproduce rapidly, have few predators to regulate their population and the climatic conditions is preferable, especially as the environmental conditions limit diseases that regulate rabbit populations on other continents. [16]

Methods for controlling overabundant species

There are various methods for controlling overabundant populations. Some methods have been used over many years, for example culling, while others such as immunocontraception are still being researched.

Culling

Culling refers to selective elimination of animals to decrease a population. Two ways of culling involve killing animals by hunting and translocation of animals. Culling of animals may also be an option in reserves established for specific animal conservation as a way of managing their population density, examples include: elephants and hippos. [2]

Target animals can be hunted on the ground or culled by aerial pursuit, with the aim to eliminate the animal in one accurate hit to reduce or limit suffering before death. This method allows a large number of animals to be eliminated within a relatively short amount of time, however shots are not always accurate which can lead to the escape and suffering of individuals. [17]

Baiting

Baiting is a common method of controlling overabundant populations, it involves the placement of lethal chemicals in food (the bait) that eliminates the animal. It is cost-effective and helps remove a large number of animals from a population, [17] however if ingested by non-target animals it could potentially cause death depending on the type of bait the chemical is administered in, as well as the areas of bait placement. [18]

1080 is a common chemical used in bait. 1080 once ingested causes death by inhibiting the animal's neurological functioning. [19] It consists of an enzyme that native Australian fauna is tolerant to, however it can still be lethal if ingested. 

Fumigation

Fumigation, which involves the spreading of poisonous gas, helps to selectively kill a large number of animals. It is a method used to control rabbit and fox populations in Australia by spraying a lethal chemical into warrens and dens. Chemicals used include phosphine for rabbits and carbon monoxide for foxes, both of which induce suffering prior to death. [17]

Difficulties with fumigation include pinpointing individual dens and warrens, which can be both time-consuming and hard work, as well as the restricted time period during which animals regularly inhabit their dens, for example during spring when offspring are born. [13]

Disease

This method is used on select animals and is species specific, such as to control the rabbit population in Australia. It involves spreading a disease, for example "rabbit calicivirus disease", [20] through bait or through capture and release programs. The aim is to have the disease spread through the targeted species population to reduce their numbers. Death may take up to 1 or 2 weeks in which the animal suffers from symptoms such as fever, loss of appetite and lethargy. [17]

Contraception

Two methods for managing fertility in overabundant wildlife include the employment of biotechnology such as immunocontraception, and surgery to neuter males or spay females.  There are various factors that impact the effectiveness of contraceptive methods, some of which include: expense, longevity of the treatment effect, level of difficulty in administering the treatment, and whether or not the method has a negative impact on the individual or other species in the environment. [21]

An example of an immune-contraceptive is gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). Studies have been conducted on various animals, for example white-tailed deer and cats, of which have shown that GnRH can be effective in reducing short term fertility. [22] [23]

Immunocontraception

Immunocontraception causes animals to become infertile which helps to control and reduce overabundant populations. Two methods of administration include vaccines and chemical implants. In some studies immunocontraception has shown to effectively reduce pregnancy rates, however this method is both time-consuming and expensive due to further research required to overcome challenges such as longevity of the contraceptive effect. [24]

Surgery

This method can be effective in small populations as it is fairly accessible, however the procedure is costly, invasive as well as the individual being at risk of infection after surgery. Surgical sterilisation is permanent, as a result it may not be appropriate for use in native populations due to the risk of potentially losing genetic variation. [21]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Overgrazing</span> When plants are grazed for extended periods without sufficient recovery time

Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, game reserves, or nature reserves. It can also be caused by immobile, travel restricted populations of native or non-native wild animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rabbits in Australia</span>

European rabbits were first introduced to Australia in the 18th century with the First Fleet, and later became widespread, because of Thomas Austin. Such wild rabbit populations are a serious mammalian pest and invasive species in Australia causing millions of dollars' worth of damage to crops. Their spread may have been enhanced through the emergence of strong crossbreeds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Invasive species in Australia</span>

Invasive species in Australia are a serious threat to the native biodiversity, and an ongoing cost to Australian agriculture. Numerous species arrived with European maritime exploration and colonisation of Australia and steadily since then.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium fluoroacetate</span> Chemical compound

Sodium fluoroacetate, also known as compound 1080, is an organofluorine chemical compound with the chemical formula FCH2CO2Na. It is the sodium salt of fluoroacetic acid. It contains sodium cations Na+ and fluoroacetate anions FCH2CO−2. This colourless salt has a taste similar to that of table salt and is used as a rodenticide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Island restoration</span> Ecological restoration of islands and island groups

The ecological restoration of islands, or island restoration, is the application of the principles of ecological restoration to islands and island groups. Islands, due to their isolation, are home to many of the world's endemic species, as well as important breeding grounds for seabirds and some marine mammals. Their ecosystems are also very vulnerable to human disturbance and particularly to introduced species, due to their small size. Island groups, such as New Zealand and Hawaii, have undergone substantial extinctions and losses of habitat. Since the 1950s several organisations and government agencies around the world have worked to restore islands to their original states; New Zealand has used them to hold natural populations of species that would otherwise be unable to survive in the wild. The principal components of island restoration are the removal of introduced species and the reintroduction of native species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beecroft Peninsula</span>

Beecroft Peninsula is the northern headland of Jervis Bay, on Australia's east coast. On the western and southern sides of the peninsula steep sandstone cliffs rise out of the ocean, up to 91 metres at its southernmost point, Point Perpendicular. White sandy beaches are found along the northern, eastern and southern sides interspersed with numerous intertidal reefs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kultarr</span> Species of marsupial

The kultarr is a small insectivorous nocturnal marsupial inhabiting the arid interior of Australia. Preferred habitat includes stony deserts, shrubland, woodland, grassland and open plains. The kultarr has a range of adaptations to help cope with Australia's harsh arid environment including torpor similar to hibernation that helps conserve energy. The species has declined across its former range since European settlement due to changes in land management practices and introduced predators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western Shield</span> Nature conservation program

Western Shield, managed by Western Australia's Department of Parks and Wildlife, is a nature conservation program safeguarding Western Australia's animals and protecting them from extinction. The program was set up in 1996 and as of 2009 was the largest and most successful wildlife conservation program ever undertaken in Australia.

The Forrest's mouse, or desert short-tailed mouse, is a small species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is a widespread but sparsely distributed species found across arid and semi-arid inland Australia, commonly found in tussock grassland, chenopod shrubland, and mulga or savannah woodlands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation grazing</span> Use of animals to graze areas like nature reserves to maintain habitats

Conservation grazing or targeted grazing is the use of semi-feral or domesticated grazing livestock to maintain and increase the biodiversity of natural or semi-natural grasslands, heathlands, wood pasture, wetlands and many other habitats. Conservation grazing is generally less intensive than practices such as prescribed burning, but still needs to be managed to ensure that overgrazing does not occur. The practice has proven to be beneficial in moderation in restoring and maintaining grassland and heathland ecosystems. Conservation or monitored grazing has been implemented into regenerative agriculture programs to restore soil and overall ecosystem health of current working landscapes. The optimal level of grazing and grazing animal will depend on the goal of conservation. Different levels of grazing, alongside other conservation practices, can be used to induce desired results.

Buckaringa Sanctuary is a 20 km2 nature reserve in the southern Flinders Ranges of South Australia. It is 30 km north of the town of Quorn. It is owned and managed by the Australian Wildlife Conservancy (AWC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Browsing (herbivory)</span> Type of herbivory

Browsing is a type of herbivory in which a herbivore feeds on leaves, soft shoots, or fruits of high-growing, generally woody plants such as shrubs. This is contrasted with grazing, usually associated with animals feeding on grass or other lower vegetations. Alternatively, grazers are animals eating mainly grass, and browsers are animals eating mainly non-grasses, which include both woody and herbaceous dicots. In either case, an example of this dichotomy are goats and sheep.

Overpopulation or overabundance is a phenomenon in which a species' population becomes larger than the carrying capacity of its environment. This may be caused by increased birth rates, lowered mortality rates, reduced predation or large scale migration, leading to an overabundant species and other animals in the ecosystem competing for food, space, and resources. The animals in an overpopulated area may then be forced to migrate to areas not typically inhabited, or die off without access to necessary resources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesocarnivore</span> Organism that eats mostly animal tissue

A mesocarnivore is an animal whose diet consists of 50–70% meat with the balance consisting of non-vertebrate foods which may include insects, fungi, fruits, other plant material and any food that is available to them. Mesocarnivores are from a large family group of mammalian carnivores and vary from small to medium sized, which are less than fifteen kilograms. Mesocarnivores are seen today among the Canidae, Viverridae (civets), Mustelidae, Procyonidae, Mephitidae (skunks), and Herpestidae. The red fox is also the most common of the mesocarnivores in Europe and has a high population density in the areas they reside.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red foxes in Australia</span>

Red foxes pose a serious conservation problem in Australia. 2012 estimates indicate that there are more than 7.2 million red foxes, with a range extending throughout most of the continental mainland. The species became established in Australia through successive introductions, by settlers, beginning around the 1830s. Due to its rapid spread and ecological impact, it has been classified as one of the most damaging invasive species in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Introduced mammals on seabird breeding islands</span>

Seabirds include some of the most threatened taxa anywhere in the world. For example, of extant albatross species, 82% are listed as threatened, endangered, or critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The two leading threats to seabirds are accidental bycatch by commercial fishing operations and introduced mammals on their breeding islands. Mammals are typically brought to remote islands by humans either accidentally as stowaways on ships, or deliberately for hunting, ranching, or biological control of previously introduced species. Introduced mammals have a multitude of negative effects on seabirds including direct and indirect effects. Direct effects include predation and disruption of breeding activities, and indirect effects include habitat transformation due to overgrazing and major shifts in nutrient cycling due to a halting of nutrient subsidies from seabird excrement. There are other invasive species on islands that wreak havoc on native bird populations, but mammals are by far the most commonly introduced species to islands and the most detrimental to breeding seabirds. Despite efforts to remove introduced mammals from these remote islands, invasive mammals are still present on roughly 80% of islands worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yathong Nature Reserve</span> Protected area in New South Wales, Australia

The Yathong Nature Reserve is a protected nature reserve that is also a nationally and internationally recognized biosphere situated in the central-western region of New South Wales, in eastern Australia. The 107,240-hectare (265,000-acre) reserve was listed by UNESCO in 1977 as a Biosphere Reserve under the Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB). The reserve is significant for its biodiversity in both native plant and animal species. Cultural heritage and historical grazing activities add to the significance of this site as a conservation area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cats in Australia</span> Overview of the role and status of cats in Australia

Cats are an invasive species in Australia. Because they are not native to Australia and were only introduced by European colonists as pets in the early 1800s, native Australian animals did not co-evolve with them. As of 2016, some 3.8 million domestic cats and up to 6.3 million feral cats continue to live in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cat predation on wildlife</span> Interspecies animal behavior

Cat predation on wildlife is the result of the natural instincts and behavior of both feral and owned house cats to hunt small prey, including wildlife. Some people view this as a desirable phenomenon, such as in the case of barn cats and other cats kept for the intended purpose of pest control in rural settings; but scientific evidence does not support the popular use of cats to control urban rat populations, and ecologists oppose their use for this purpose because of the disproportionate harm they do to native wildlife. As an invasive species and predator, they do considerable ecological damage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Summerland Peninsula</span> Protected area in Victoria, Australia

The Summerland Peninsula is located at the western end of Phillip Island in Victoria, Australia. The peninsula lies within the Gippsland Plain Bioregion and is a site of high conservation significance.

References

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  4. 1 2 Pivello, Vânia Regina; Vieira, Marcus Vinicius; Grombone-Guaratini, Maria Tereza; Matos, Dalva Maria Silva (2018). "Thinking about super-dominant populations of native species – Examples from Brazil". Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation. 16 (2): 74–82. doi: 10.1016/j.pecon.2018.04.001 . ISSN   2530-0644.
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  10. 1 2 Global Invasive Species Database (2019). "Species profile: Vulpes vulpes". www.iucngisd.org. Retrieved 2019-05-12.
  11. ↑ "Invasive species". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2019-05-12.
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  14. ↑ Sakai, A., Allendorf, F., Holt, J., Lodge, D., Molofsky, J., With, K., . . . Weller, S. (2001). The Population Biology of Invasive Specie. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics,32, 305-332. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2678643
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  21. 1 2 Adderton, HC (2004). "Long-acting contraceptives: a new tool to manage overabundant kangaroo populations in nature reserves and urban areas." Australian Mammalogy. 26 (1): 67. doi: 10.1071/am04067 . ISSN   0310-0049.
  22. ↑ Miller, Lowell A. Johns, Brad E. Killian, Gary J. (2000-04-26). "Immunocontraception of White-Tailed Deer with GnRH Vaccine". American Journal of Reproductive Immunology. 44 (5). DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln: 266–74. doi:10.1111/j.8755-8920.2000.440503.x. OCLC   749806237. PMID   11125787. S2CID   32501463.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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