Oyster reef

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Oyster reef at about mid-tide off fishing pier at Hunting Island State Park, South Carolina Oyster reef Hunting Island SC.jpg
Oyster reef at about mid-tide off fishing pier at Hunting Island State Park, South Carolina

The term oyster reef refers to dense aggregations of oysters that form large colonial communities. Because oyster larvae need to settle on hard substrates, new oyster reefs may form on stone or other hard marine debris. Eventually the oyster reef will propagate by spat settling on the shells of older or nonliving oysters. The dense aggregations of oysters are often referred to as an oyster reef, oyster bed, oyster bank, oyster bottom, or oyster bar interchangeably. These terms are not well defined and often regionally restricted.

Contents

Degradation of oyster reefs

Oyster reefs were once common in estuaries around the world. [1] Within the last century there have been significant declines in the extent and condition of oyster reefs globally, [2] driven by overharvesting of oysters for food provision and lime production, and coastal degradation. [1] Boat wakes can cause oyster shells to be swept toward the shore, where they build up over time into exposed piles in which any remaining oysters will desiccate and die. [3] These piles may also isolate littoral areas from tides and currents, leading to further habitat degradation. [3] Laboratory experiments suggest that in areas of faster flow and higher amounts of suspended sediment, as would be seen in a high-traffic channel, the cyprid larvae of barnacles may outcompete larval oysters in settling onto substrate, a prerequisite for completing their respective life cycles. [4] : 40–48 

In the United States Crassostrea virginica, the eastern oyster, was a major reef builder in the Chesapeake Bay until the late 19th century. Because of overfishing, environmental degradation, and disease, populations of C. virginica underwent a drastic reduction in population size. [5] There is an established pattern connecting human fishing practices, such as dredging, to oyster population collapse across the globe. Besides the collapse of C. virginica reefs on the east coast of the United States, populations of the Olympia oyster, Ostrea lurida , on the western coast of the United States and the Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea glomerata, of eastern Australia have both been heavily impacted by harmful fishing practices. [6] While most research has focused on temperate zones it is likely that significant declines have also been observed in tropical regions. [7]

The IUCN's Overall Risk Category assessment of the oyster reef ecosystem in southern and eastern Australia has labeled them as critically endangered. [8]

Oyster reef ecology

Natural oyster reefs are composed of living and dead oyster shells and provide important habitat for various species. [5] For example, the complex three-dimensional interstitial spaces within oyster reefs provide refugia for prey or juvenile species, which increases prey biomass and thereby enhances trophic transfer. Oyster reefs also stabilize shorelines by promoting sediment deposition and buffering wave energy, thereby allowing other habitats such as sea grass beds and marsh areas to form while simultaneously decreasing erosion of the shoreline. [9] [10] [11] [12]

Ecosystem services

The filter feeding behavior of oysters can buffer against environmental degradation caused by human-induced eutrophication of estuary systems. Oysters feed on suspended phytoplankton and other organic matter. Disruption of the filter feeding by oysters can lead to a decrease in the elimination of organic matter from the water column and increase phytoplankton abundance. This in turn may lead to seasonal anoxia, which could increase mortality for other estuary animals, such as fish. [5]

Oyster reefs can also impact the carbon sequestration and excess nutrient uptake. Oyster reefs also stabilize shorelines by promoting sediment deposition and buffering wave energy, thereby allowing other habitats such as sea grass beds and marsh areas to form while simultaneously decreasing erosion of the shoreline. [9] [13] [14] [15] Oyster reef habitats have been recognized as green infrastructure for shoreline protection. [16]

Restoration

Oyster reef restoration has accelerated in recent decades. [17] Oyster reef restoration projects often place the sanitized shells of dead oysters, concrete, or limestone pieces on a soft bottom to encourage oyster spat settlement. [10] Restoration of intertidal eastern oyster reefs can match natural densities of oysters and mud crabs, and recover oyster stability in about 6 years. [18] Additional benefits to restoring these habitats includes suppressing phytoplankton blooms via increasing filter feeding behavior, [19] increase nutrient sequestration and denitrification rates, [20] increase nekton biomass, and potentially increase commercial fishery value. [21] However, data on previously implemented restoration projects can be difficult to access, hindering future restoration efforts. [22]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral reef</span> Outcrop of rock in the sea formed by the growth and deposit of stony coral skeletons

A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oyster</span> Variety of families of Mollusc

Oyster is the common name for a number of different families of salt-water bivalve molluscs that live in marine or brackish habitats. In some species, the valves are highly calcified, and many are somewhat irregular in shape. Many, but not all oysters, are in the superfamily Ostreoidea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salt marsh</span> Coastal ecosystem between land and open saltwater that is regularly flooded

A salt marsh, saltmarsh or salting, also known as a coastal salt marsh or a tidal marsh, is a coastal ecosystem in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and open saltwater or brackish water that is regularly flooded by the tides. It is dominated by dense stands of salt-tolerant plants such as herbs, grasses, or low shrubs. These plants are terrestrial in origin and are essential to the stability of the salt marsh in trapping and binding sediments. Salt marshes play a large role in the aquatic food web and the delivery of nutrients to coastal waters. They also support terrestrial animals and provide coastal protection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern oyster</span> Species of bivalve

The eastern oyster —also called the Atlantic oyster, American oyster, or East Coast oyster—is a species of true oyster native to eastern North and South America. Other names in local or culinary use include the Wellfleet oyster, Virginia oyster, Malpeque oyster, Blue Pointoyster, Chesapeake Bay oyster, and Apalachicola oyster. C. virginica ranges from northern New Brunswick south through parts of the West Indies to Venezuela. It is farmed in all of the Maritime provinces of Canada and all Eastern Seaboard and Gulf states of the United States, as well as Puget Sound, Washington, where it is known as the Totten Inlet Virginica. It was introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in the 19th century and is common in Pearl Harbor.

Perkinsus marinus is a species of alveolate belonging to the phylum Perkinsozoa. It is similar to a dinoflagellate. It is known as a prevalent pathogen of oysters, causing massive mortality in oyster populations. The disease it causes is known as dermo or perkinsosis, and is characterized by the degradation of oyster tissues. The genome of this species has been sequenced.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oyster farming</span> Commercial growing of oysters

Oyster farming is an aquaculture practice in which oysters are bred and raised mainly for their pearls, shells and inner organ tissue, which is eaten. Oyster farming was practiced by the ancient Romans as early as the 1st century BC on the Italian peninsula and later in Britain for export to Rome. The French oyster industry has relied on aquacultured oysters since the late 18th century.

<i>Ostrea angasi</i> Species of oyster endemic to southern Australia

The southern mud oyster, Australian flat oyster, native flat oyster, native mud oyster, or angasi oyster, is endemic to southern Australia, ranging from Western Australia to southeast New South Wales and around Tasmania. Ostrea angasi superficially resembles Ostrea edulis and both species may be referred to with the name "flat oyster". However, the two species do not occur naturally in the same geographic distribution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine ecosystem</span> Ecosystem in saltwater environment

Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply and 90% of habitable space on Earth. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems. Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live. The benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include mudflats, seagrass meadows, mangroves, rocky intertidal systems, salt marshes, coral reefs, lagoons. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brackish marsh</span> Marsh with brackish level of salinity

Brackish marshes develop from salt marshes where a significant freshwater influx dilutes the seawater to brackish levels of salinity. This commonly happens upstream from salt marshes by estuaries of coastal rivers or near the mouths of coastal rivers with heavy freshwater discharges in the conditions of low tidal ranges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Portuguese oyster</span> Species of bivalve

The Portuguese oyster is a species of oyster found in the southwest Iberian Peninsula, closely related to the Pacific oyster. Although first identified as a native European species, genetic studies have suggested the Portuguese oyster originated from the Pacific coast of Asia and was introduced to Europe by Portuguese trading ships in the 16th century. The species is usually found in coastal river mouths and estuaries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological values of mangroves</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oyster reef restoration</span> Process of rebuilding or restoring of oyster reefs

Oyster reef restoration refers to the reparation and reconstruction of degraded oyster reefs. Environmental changes, modern fishing practices, over harvesting, water pollution, and other factors, have resulted in damage, disease, and ultimately, a large decline in global population and prevalence of oyster habitats. Aside from ecological importance, oyster farming is an important industry in many regions around the world. Both natural and artificial materials have been used in efforts to increase population and regenerate reefs.

<i>Ischadium</i> Genus of bivalves

Ischadium is a monotypic genus of mussels in the family Mytilidae. The sole species is Ischadium recurvum, known as the "Hooked mussel" or "Bent mussel". It can be found along the Atlantic coast of North America, ranging from Cape Cod to the West Indies. They are often found growing on Eastern oysters, either intertidal or subtidal. They also attach to other hard substrates, including artificial reefs and dead shells of brackish water clams, Rangia cuneata.

<i>Amphibalanus amphitrite</i> Species of barnacle

Amphibalanus amphitrite is a species of acorn barnacle in the Balanidae family. Its common names include the striped barnacle, the purple acorn barnacle and Amphitrite's rock barnacle. It is found in warm and temperate waters worldwide.

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<i>Ostrea equestris</i> Species of bivalve

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine coastal ecosystem</span> Wildland-ocean interface

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Facilitation cascade</span> Beneficial ecological chain reaction

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The Oyster Recovery Partnership (ORP) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that leads conservation efforts of the native Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, in the Chesapeake Bay and Eastern United States. The organization's activities and programs include oyster restoration, shell recycling conservation, and sustainable fishery initiatives.

References

  1. 1 2 Beck, Michael W. (2011). "Oyster Reefs at Risk and Recommendations for Conservation, Restoration, and Management". BioScience. 61 (2): 107–116. doi:10.1525/bio.2011.61.2.5. S2CID   4993209.
  2. ↑ Kirby, Michael Xavier (2004-08-23). "Fishing down the coast: Historical expansion and collapse of oyster fisheries along continental margins". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (35): 13096–13099. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0405150101 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   516522 . PMID   15326294.
  3. 1 2 "Notes from the Field: Indian River Lagoon Oyster Reef Restoration Project" (PDF). The Nature Conservancy Indian River Lagoon Program. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  4. ↑ Boudreaux, Michelle L. (2005). Native and Invasive Competitors of the Eastern Oyster Crassostrea virginica in Mosquito Lagoon, Florida (MSc thesis). Orlando: University of Central Florida. 532. Retrieved 30 January 2023– via UCF STARS.
  5. 1 2 3 Kirby, Michael X.; Miller, Henry M. (1 March 2005). "Response of a benthic suspension feeder (Crassostrea virginica Gmelin) to three centuries of anthropogenic eutrophication in Chesapeake Bay". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 62 (4): 679–689. Bibcode:2005ECSS...62..679K. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2004.10.004.
  6. ↑ Kirby, Michael (2004). "Fishing down the coast: Historical expansion and collapse of oyster fisheries along continental margins". PNAS. 101 (35): 13096–13099. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10113096K. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0405150101 . PMC   516522 . PMID   15326294.
  7. ↑ Richardson, Marina A.; Zhang, Ya; Connolly, Rod M.; Gillies, Chris L.; McDougall, Carmel (23 June 2022). "Some Like it Hot: The Ecology, Ecosystem Benefits and Restoration Potential of Oyster Reefs in Tropical Waters". Frontiers in Marine Science. 9: 873768. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2022.873768 .
  8. ↑ Gillies, Chris L.; Castine, Sarah A.; Alleway, Heidi K.; Crawford, Christine; Fitzsimons, James A.; Hancock, Boze; Koch, Paul; McAfee, Dominic; McLeod, Ian M.; zu Ermgassen, Philine S. E. (2020-06-01). "Conservation status of the Oyster Reef Ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia". Global Ecology and Conservation. 22: e00988. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e00988. hdl: 10536/DRO/DU:30139182 . ISSN   2351-9894.
  9. 1 2 La Peyre, M. K.; Furlong, J.; Brown, L. A.; Piazza, B. P.; Brown, K. (2014). "Oyster reef restoration in the northern Gulf of Mexico: extent, methods, and outcomes". Ocean & Coastal Management. 89: 20–28. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.12.002.
  10. 1 2 Brown, L. A.; Furlong, J. N.; Brown, K. M.; La Pyre, M. K. (2014). "Oyster reef restoration in the northern Gulf of Mexico: effect and artificial substrate and age on nekton and benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage use". Restoration Ecology. 22 (2): 213–222. doi:10.1111/rec.12071. S2CID   84109311.
  11. ↑ Dillon, K. S.; Peterson, M. S.; May, C. A. (2015). "Functional equivalence of constructed and natural intertidal eastern oyster reef habitats in a northern Gulf of Mexico estuary". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 528: 187–203. Bibcode:2015MEPS..528..187D. doi: 10.3354/meps11269 .
  12. ↑ George, L. M.; De Santiago, K.; Palmer, T. A.; Pollack, J. B. (2015). "Oyster reef restoration: effect of alternative substrates on oyster recruitment and nekton habitat use". Journal of Coastal Conservation. 19: 13–22. doi:10.1007/s11852-014-0351-y. S2CID   54732481.
  13. ↑ Brown, L. A.; Furlong, J. N.; Brown, K. M.; La Pyre, M. K. (2014). "Oyster reef restoration in the northern Gulf of Mexico: effect and artificial substrate and age on nekton and benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage use". Restoration Ecology. 22 (2): 213–222. doi:10.1111/rec.12071. S2CID   84109311.
  14. ↑ Dillon, K. S.; Peterson, M. S.; May, C. A. (2015). "Functional equivalence of constructed and natural intertidal eastern oyster reef habitats in a northern Gulf of Mexico estuary". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 528: 187–203. Bibcode:2015MEPS..528..187D. doi: 10.3354/meps11269 .
  15. ↑ George, L. M.; De Santiago, K.; Palmer, T. A.; Pollack, J. B. (2015). "Oyster reef restoration: effect of alternative substrates on oyster recruitment and nekton habitat use". Journal of Coastal Conservation. 19: 13–22. doi:10.1007/s11852-014-0351-y. S2CID   54732481.
  16. ↑ Arkema, Katie K.; Guannel, Greg; Verutes, Gregory; Wood, Spencer A.; Guerry, Anne; Ruckelshaus, Mary; Kareiva, Peter; Lacayo, Martin; Silver, Jessica M. (2013-07-14). "Coastal habitats shield people and property from sea-level rise and storms". Nature Climate Change. 3 (10): 913–918. doi:10.1038/nclimate1944. ISSN   1758-678X.
  17. ↑ Duarte, Carlos M.; Agusti, Susana; Barbier, Edward; Britten, Gregory L.; Castilla, Juan Carlos; Gattuso, Jean-Pierre; Fulweiler, Robinson W.; Hughes, Terry P.; Knowlton, Nancy; Lovelock, Catherine E.; Lotze, Heike K.; Predragovic, Milica; Poloczanska, Elvira; Roberts, Callum; Worm, Boris (1 April 2020). "Rebuilding marine life". Nature. 580 (7801): 39–51. doi: 10.1038/s41586-021-03271-2 . ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   32238939. S2CID   233279016.
  18. ↑ Smith, Rachel S.; Lusk, Bo; Castorani, Max C.N. (5 April 2022). "Restored oyster reefs match multiple functions of natural reefs within a decade". Conservation Letters. 15 (4). doi: 10.1111/conl.12883 . S2CID   247990521.
  19. ↑ Gedan, Keryn B.; Kellogg, Lisa; Breitburg, Denise L. (1 July 2014). "Accounting for Multiple Foundation Species in Oyster Reef Restoration Benefits". Restoration Ecology. 22 (4): 517–524. doi:10.1111/rec.12107. ISSN   1526-100X. S2CID   22032465.
  20. ↑ Kellogg, M. Lisa; Cornwell, Jeffrey C.; Owens, Michael S.; Paynter, Kennedy T. (22 April 2013). "FEATURE ARTICLE Denitrification and nutrient assimilation on a restored oyster reef". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 480: 1–19. doi: 10.3354/meps10331 .
  21. ↑ Humphries, Austin T.; Peyre, Megan K. La (25 August 2015). "Oyster reef restoration supports increased nekton biomass and potential commercial fishery value". PeerJ. 3: e1111. doi: 10.7717/peerj.1111 . PMC   4556142 . PMID   26336635.
  22. ↑ La Peyre, Megan; Furlong, Jessica; Brown, Laura A.; Piazza, Bryan P.; Brown, Ken (1 March 2014). "Oyster reef restoration in the northern Gulf of Mexico: Extent, methods and outcomes". Ocean & Coastal Management. 89: 20–28. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.12.002.
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