Plant genetic resources

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Plant genetic resources describe the variability within plants that comes from human and natural selection over millennia. Their intrinsic value mainly concerns agricultural crops (crop biodiversity).

Contents

According to the 1983 revised International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), plant genetic resources are defined as the entire generative and vegetative reproductive material of species with economical and/or social value, especially for the agriculture of the present and the future, with special emphasis on nutritional plants. [1]

In the State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (1998) the FAO defined Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA) as the diversity of genetic material contained in traditional varieties and modern cultivars as well as crop wild relatives and other wild plant species that can be used now or in the future for food and agriculture. [2]

History

The first use of plant genetic resources dates to more than 10,000 years ago, when farmers selected from the genetic variation they found in wild plants to develop their crops. As human populations moved to different climates and ecosystems, taking the crops with them, the crops adapted to the new environments, developing, for example, genetic traits providing tolerance to conditions such as drought, water logging, frost and extreme heat. These traits - and the plasticity inherent in having wide genetic variability - are important properties of plant genetic resources.[ citation needed ]

In recent centuries, although humans had been prolific in collecting exotic flora from all corners of the globe to fill their gardens, it wasn’t until the early 20th century that the widespread and organized collection of plant genetic resources for agricultural use began in earnest. Russian geneticist Nikolai Vavilov, considered by some as the father of plant genetic resources, realized the value of genetic variability for breeding and collected thousands of seeds during his extensive travels to establish one of the first gene banks. [3] Vavilov inspired the American Jack Harlan to collect seeds from across the globe for the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). [4] David Fairchild, another botanist at USDA, successfully introduced many important crops (e.g. cherries, soybeans, pistachios) into the United States. [5]

It wasn’t until 1967 that the term genetic resources was coined by Otto Frankel and Erna Bennett at the historic International Conference on Crop Plant Exploration and Conservation, organized by the FAO and the International Biological Program (IBP) [6] [7] “The effective utilization of genetic resources requires that they are adequately classified and evaluated” was a key message from the conference. [8]

Conservation

Plant genetic resource conservation has become increasingly important as more plants have become threatened or rare. At the same time, an exploding world population and rapid climate change have led humans to seek new resilient and nutritious crops. Plant conservation strategies generally combine elements of conservation on farm (as part of the crop production cycle, where it continues to evolve and support farmer needs), ex situ (for example in gene banks or field collections as seed or tissue samples) or in situ (where they grow in the wild or protected areas). Most in situ conservation concerns crop wild relatives, an important source of genetic variation to crop breeding programs. [9]

Plant genetic resources that are conserved by any of these methods are often referred to as germplasm, which is a shorthand term meaning "any genetic materials". The term originates from germ plasm, August Weismann's theory that heritable information is transmitted only by germ cells, and which has been superseded by modern insights on inheritance, including epigenetics and non-nuclear DNA.

After the Second World War, efforts to conserve plant genetic resources came mainly from breeders’ organizations in the USA and Europe, which led to crop-specific collections primarily located in developed countries (e.g. IRRI, CIMMYT). In the 1960s and 1970s, more focus was put on the collection and conservation of plant genetic resources in face of genetic erosion by organizations such as the Rockefeller Foundation and the European Society of Breeding Research (EUCARPIA). [8]

A key event in the conservation of plant genetic resources was the establishment of the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) (now Bioversity International) in 1974, whose mandate was to promote and assist in the worldwide effort to collect and conserve the plant germplasm needed for future research and production. IBPGR mobilized scientists to create a global network of gene banks, thus marking the international recognition of the importance of plant genetic resources. [8]

In 2002, the Global Crop Diversity Trust was established by Bioversity International on behalf of the CGIAR and the FAO through a Crop Diversity Endowment Fund. The goal of the Trust is to provide a secure and sustainable source of funding for the world's most important ex situ crop collections.

Policy

In response to the growing awareness of the global value of and threat to biological diversity, the United Nations drafted the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), [10] the first global multilateral treaty focused on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Article 15 of the CBD specified that countries have national sovereignty over their genetic resources, but that there should be facilitated access and benefit sharing (ABS) under mutually agreed terms and with prior informed consent.

Going further to protect national sovereignty of plant genetic resources, an instrumental piece of legislation, The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), was adopted by the FAO in November 2001 and came into force in 2004. [11]

The ITPGRFA established several mechanisms under the Multilateral System, which grants free access and equitable use of 64 of the world’s most important crops (Annex 1 crops) for some uses (research, breeding and training for food and agriculture). The treaty prevents the recipients of genetic resources from claiming intellectual property rights over those resources in the form in which they received them, and ensures that access to genetic resources is consistent with international and national laws. This is facilitated by the Standard Material Transfer Agreement, a mandatory contract between providers and recipients for the exchange of germplasm under the Multilateral System. The Governing Body of the treaty, through FAO as the Third Party Beneficiary, has an interest in the agreements. [11]

The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization is a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity that was adopted in 2010 and enforced in 2014. It provides greater legal transparency to policies governing fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. [12]

Issues and controversies

Due to the high value and complexity of plant genetic resources and the number of parties involved globally, some issues have arisen over their conservation and use.

Much of the material for breeding programs was collected from the Southern hemisphere and sent to gene banks in the Northern hemisphere, a concern that led to more emphasis on the national sovereignty of plant genetic resources and instigated policies that addressed the imbalance. [13]

The increased use of plant genetic information for research, for example to find genes of interest for drought tolerance, has led to controversy on whether and to what extent the genetic data (separate from the organism) are subject to the international ABS regulations described above. [13]

Forest genetic resources represent a specific case of plant genetic resources.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seed bank</span> Backup seed storage

A seed bank stores seeds to preserve genetic diversity; hence it is a type of gene bank. There are many reasons to store seeds. One is to preserve the genes that plant breeders need to increase yield, disease resistance, drought tolerance, nutritional quality, taste, etc. of crops. Another is to forestall loss of genetic diversity in rare or imperiled plant species in an effort to conserve biodiversity ex situ. Many plants that were used centuries ago by humans are used less frequently now; seed banks offer a way to preserve that historical and cultural value. Collections of seeds stored at constant low temperature and low moisture are guarded against loss of genetic resources that are otherwise maintained in situ or in field collections. These alternative "living" collections can be damaged by natural disasters, outbreaks of disease, or war. Seed banks are considered seed libraries, containing valuable information about evolved strategies to combat plant stress, and can be used to create genetically modified versions of existing seeds. The work of seed banks often span decades and even centuries. Most seed banks are publicly funded and seeds are usually available for research that benefits the public.

The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, is a comprehensive international agreement in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, which aims at guaranteeing food security through the conservation, exchange and sustainable use of the world's plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA), the fair and equitable benefit sharing arising from its use, as well as the recognition of farmers' rights. It was signed in 2001 in Madrid, and entered into force on 29 June 2004.

<i>Ex situ</i> conservation Preservation of plants or animals outside their natural habitats

Ex situ conservation is the process of protecting an endangered species, variety or breed, of plant or animal outside its natural habitat. For example, by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, an artificial environment which is similar to the natural habitat of the respective animal and within the care of humans, such as a zoological park or wildlife sanctuary. The degree to which humans control or modify the natural dynamics of the managed population varies widely, and this may include alteration of living environments, reproductive patterns, access to resources, and protection from predation and mortality.

In situ conservation is the on-site conservation or the conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant or animal species, such as forest genetic resources in natural populations of tree species. This process protects the inhabitants and ensures the sustainability of the environment and ecosystem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants</span> Intergovernmental organization

The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants or UPOV is a treaty body with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Its objective is to provide an effective system for plant variety protection. It does so by defining a blueprint regulation to be implemented by its members in national law. The expression UPOV Convention also refers to one of the three instruments that relate to the union, namely the 1991 Act of the UPOV Convention, 1978 Act of the UPOV Convention and 1961 Act of the UPOV Convention with Amendments of 1972.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant breeders' rights</span>

Plant breeders' rights (PBR), also known as plant variety rights (PVR), are rights granted in certain places to the breeder of a new variety of plant that give the breeder exclusive control over the propagating material and harvested material of a new variety for a number of years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural biodiversity</span> Agricultural concept

Agricultural biodiversity or agrobiodiversity is a subset of general biodiversity pertaining to agriculture. It can be defined as "the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels that sustain the ecosystem structures, functions and processes in and around production systems, and that provide food and non-food agricultural products.” It is managed by farmers, pastoralists, fishers and forest dwellers, agrobiodiversity provides stability, adaptability and resilience and constitutes a key element of the livelihood strategies of rural communities throughout the world. Agrobiodiversity is central to sustainable food systems and sustainable diets. The use of agricultural biodiversity can contribute to food security, nutrition security, and livelihood security, and it is critical for climate adaptation and climate mitigation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Germplasm</span> Genetic material of an organism

Germplasm are genetic resources such as seeds, tissues, and DNA sequences that are maintained for the purpose of animal and plant breeding, conservation efforts, agriculture, and other research uses. These resources may take the form of seed collections stored in seed banks, trees growing in nurseries, animal breeding lines maintained in animal breeding programs or gene banks. Germplasm collections can range from collections of wild species to elite, domesticated breeding lines that have undergone extensive human selection. Germplasm collection is important for the maintenance of biological diversity, food security, and conservation efforts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gene bank</span> Facility that preserves genetic material

Gene banks are a type of biorepository that preserves genetic material. For plants, this is done by in vitro storage, freezing cuttings from the plant, or stocking the seeds. For animals, this is done by the freezing of sperm and eggs in zoological freezers until further need. With corals, fragments are taken and stored in water tanks under controlled conditions. Genetic material in a 'gene bank' is preserved in a variety of ways, such as freezing at -196 °C in liquid nitrogen, being placed in artificial ecosystems, or put in controlled nutrient media.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crop Trust</span>

The Crop Trust, officially known as the Global Crop Diversity Trust, is an international nonprofit organization with a secretariat in Bonn, Germany. Its mission is to conserve and make available the world's crop diversity for food security.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioversity International</span>

Bioversity International is a global research-for-development organization that delivers scientific evidence, management practices and policy options to use and safeguard agricultural biodiversity to attain global food- and nutrition security, working with partners in low-income countries in different regions where agricultural biodiversity can contribute to improved nutrition, resilience, productivity and climate change adaptation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crop wild relative</span> Wild plant closely related to a domesticated plant

A crop wild relative (CWR) is a wild plant closely related to a domesticated plant. It may be a wild ancestor of the domesticated (cultivated) plant or another closely related taxon.

Crop diversity or crop biodiversity is the variety and variability of crops, plants used in agriculture, including their genetic and phenotypic characteristics. It is a subset of a specific element of agricultural biodiversity. Over the past 50 years, there has been a major decline in two components of crop diversity; genetic diversity within each crop and the number of species commonly grown.

Forest genetic resources or foresttree genetic resources are genetic resources of forest shrub and tree species. Forest genetic resources are essential for forest-depending communities who rely for a substantial part of their livelihoods on timber and non-timber forest products for food security, domestic use and income generation. These resources are also the basis for large-scale wood production in planted forests to satisfy the worldwide need for timber and paper. Genetic resources of several important timber, fruit and other non-timber tree species are conserved ex situ in genebanks or maintained in field collections. Nevertheless, in situ conservation in forests and on farms is in the case of most tree species the most important measure to protect their genetic resources.

Genetic resources are genetic material of actual or potential value, where genetic material means any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity. Genetic resources is one of the three levels of biodiversity defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity in Rio, 1992.

Genesys is an online, global portal about plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. It is a gateway from which germplasm accessions from gene banks around the world can be easily found and ordered.

John Trevor Williams was a British plant geneticist who was instrumental in the creation of plant gene banks.

The Nordic Genetic Resource Center is a plant, farm animal and forest conservation, gene resource guardian, and sustainable use organization under and primarily financed by the Nordic Council of Ministers, and is headquartered in Alnarp, near Malmö, in southern Sweden. NordGen's primary mission is "securing the broad diversity of genetic resources linked to food and agriculture" through "conservation and sustainable use, solid documentation and information work and international agreements".

The National Centre for Plant Genetic Resources: Polish Genebank (NCPGR) is a research unit in the Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute – National Research Institute. NCPGR is the coordinator and implementer of the National Crop Plant Genetic Resources Protection Programme. The Programme aims to protect the biodiversity of crop plants endangered by genetic erosion in Poland, and is funded by the Ministry of Agriculture. The main tasks include collection of crop and wild plant populations and varieties threatened by genetic erosion, description and evaluation of collected materials, and preservation of their viability and genetic purity. The Programme is an implementation of provisions laid down in international treaties ratified by Poland:

Genetic resources means genetic material of actual or potential value where genetic material means any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity... Genetic resources thus refer to the part of genetic diversity that has or could have practical use, such as in plant breeding. The term was introduced by Otto Frankel and Erna Bennett for a technical conference on the exploration, utilization and conservation of plant genetic resources, organized by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the International Biological Program (IBP), held in Rome, Italy, 18–26 September 1967.

References

  1. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-13. Retrieved 2018-04-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  2. ↑ "Plant Production and Protection Division: State of the World's Plant Genetic Resources". Fao.org. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
  3. ↑ Brown, A.H.D. (1 January 1987). "Plant genetic resources: An introduction to their conservation and use". Trends in Genetics. 3: 82. doi:10.1016/0168-9525(87)90181-8.
  4. ↑ Thompson, Peter. 2010. Seeds, sex and civilization: how the hidden life of plants has shaped our world. Thames and Hudson.
  5. ↑ Williams, Beryl and Epstein, Samuel. Plant Explorer. New York: Julian Messner, 1963
  6. ↑ Frankel, O.H., and Bennett, E, (Eds.) 1970. Genetic Resources in Plants -- Their Exploration and Conservation, International Biological Programme, Handbook II. Blackwell, Oxford
  7. ↑ Wilkes, G., 2007. Urgent notice to all maize researchers: disappearance and extinction of the last wild teosinte population is more than half completed. A modest proposal for teosinte evolution and conservation in situ: the Balsas, Guerrero, Mexico. Maydica, 52(1), 49-58.
  8. 1 2 3 Pistorius, R. (1997). "Scientists, plants and politics. A history of the plant genetic resources movement" (PDF). Bioversityinternational.org. Rome. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
  9. ↑ Thayer, Alan (2005). "A new look at conservation as a means of maintaining wild type genetic variation among economically important crop species". International Journal of Agricultural Research. 20 (16): 117–132.
  10. ↑ "CBD Home". Cbd.int. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
  11. 1 2 "International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations". Archived from the original on 2018-04-23. Retrieved 2018-04-10.
  12. ↑ "The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing". Cbd.int. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
  13. 1 2 Deplazes-Zemp, Anna (1 June 2018). "'Genetic resources', an analysis of a multifaceted concept" (PDF). Biological Conservation. 222: 86–94. Bibcode:2018BCons.222...86D. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.03.031. S2CID   90810491.
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