Mangrove restoration

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Mangrove replanting in Mayotte. Plantation de paletuviers.jpg
Mangrove replanting in Mayotte.

Mangrove restoration is the regeneration of mangrove forest ecosystems in areas where they have previously existed. Restoration can be defined as "the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed." [1] Mangroves can be found throughout coastal wetlands of tropical and subtropical environments. Mangroves provide essential ecosystem services such as water filtration, aquatic nurseries, medicinal materials, food, and lumber. [2] Additionally, mangroves play a vital role in climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration and protection from coastal erosion, sea level rise, and storm surges. Mangrove habitat is declining due to human activities such as clearing land for industry and climate change. [2] [3] Mangrove restoration is critical as mangrove habitat continues to rapidly decline. Different methods have been used to restore mangrove habitat, such as looking at historical topography, or mass seed dispersal. [4] [5] Fostering the long-term success of mangrove restoration is attainable by involving local communities through stakeholder engagement. [6]

Contents

Environmental context

Historically, mangroves have been identified two different ways: the species of trees and shrubs that can tolerate brackish water conditions, or the species that fall under the mangrove family, Rhizophoraceae as well as trees of the genus Rhizophora. [7] The majority of mangrove genera and families are not closely related, but they do however, share some adaptive commonalities. These unique qualities that allow mangroves to thrive in aversive conditions are pneumatophoric roots, stilt roots, salt-excreting leaves, and viviparous water-dispersed propagules. [7] Mangrove communities occur between the latitudes of 30° N to 37° S and grow in waters where tidal height is between 1 and 4 meters. [8] They can be found in various geographic areas from oceanic islands to riverine systems and in warm temperate climates to arid and wet tropics. [8] Despite having a relatively large range of habitat, mangroves thrive in optimal areas. In warmer, humid climates, mangrove canopies may reach a height of 30–40 m. In colder, arid environments, mangroves form isolated patches with stunted growth, reaching about 1–2 m. [7]

Functions and values of mangroves

Mangrove forests, along with the animal species they shelter, represent globally significant sources of biodiversity and provide humanity with valuable ecosystem services. They are used by mammals, reptiles and migratory birds as feeding and breeding grounds, and provide crucial habitats for fish and crustacean species of commercial importance. [9] The Atlantic goliath grouper for instance, which is currently listed as critically endangered due to overfishing, utilizes mangroves as a nursery for the first 5–6 years of life. [10] The roots of the mangrove physically buffer shorelines from the erosive impacts of ocean waves and storms. [9] Additionally, they protect riparian zones by absorbing floodwaters and slowing down the flow of sediment-loaded river water. This allows sediments to drop to the bottom where they are held in place, thus containing potentially toxic waste products and improving the quality of water and sanitation in coastal communities.

To the human communities who rely on them, mangrove forests represent local sources of sustainable income from the harvest of fish and timber, as well as non-timber forest products such as medicinal plants, palm leaves and honey. On a global scale, they have been shown to sequester carbon in quantities comparable to higher-canopy terrestrial rainforests, which means that they may play a role in climate change mitigation. [11] It has been shown that even though mangrove forests only account for 0.5% of the worlds coastal habitats it has a much higher sequestration rate of carbon compared to other coastal habitats (except for salt marshes). [12] In addition to physically protecting coastlines from the projected sea-level rise associated with climate change. [13]

Mangroves as climate change mitigation

A summary of carbon storage in wetland ecosystems. BlueCarbon InfoGraph.png
A summary of carbon storage in wetland ecosystems.
This map shows the estimated global distribution of above ground carbon storage in mangroves The global distribution of carbon stored in mangroves.jpg
This map shows the estimated global distribution of above ground carbon storage in mangroves

Mangrove forests have a potential to mitigate climate change, such as through the sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere directly, and by providing protection from storms, which are expected to become more intense and frequent into the 21st century. A summary of coastal wetland carbon, including mangroves, is seen in the accompanying image. Wetland plants, like mangroves, take in carbon dioxide when they perform photosynthesis. They then convert this into biomass made of complex carbon compounds. [14] Being the most carbon-rich tropical forest, mangroves are highly productive and are found to store three to four times more carbon than other tropical forests. [15] This is known as blue carbon. Mangroves make up only 0.7% of tropical forest area worldwide, yet studies calculate the effect of mangrove deforestation to contribute 10% of global CO2 emissions from deforestation. [16] The image to the right shows the global distribution of above ground carbon from mangroves. As can be seen, most of this carbon is located in Indonesia, followed by Brazil, Malaysia and Nigeria. [17] Indonesia has one of the highest rates of mangrove loss, yet the most carbon stored from mangroves. [18] Therefore, it is suggested that if the correct policy is implemented, countries like Indonesia can make considerable contributions to global carbon fluxes. [17]

The UN estimate deforestation and forest degradation to make up 17% of global carbon emissions, which makes it the second most polluting sector, following the energy industry. [19] The cost of this globally is estimated to total $42 billion. [20] Therefore, in recent years, there has been more focus on the importance of mangroves, with initiatives being developed to use reforestation as a mitigation tool for climate change.

Mangrove loss and degradation

The issue of restoration is critical today since mangrove forests are being lost very quickly – at an even faster rate than tropical rainforests inland. [21] During the 1970s, mangroves occupied as much as 200,000 km2, encompassing approximately 75% of the world's coastlines. [22] Now, global mangrove area has experienced significant decline where at least 35% has been lost. Mangroves are continuing to diminish at a rate of 1-2% per year. [22] Much of this lost mangrove area was destroyed to make room for industry, housing and tourism development; for aquaculture, primarily shrimp farms; and for agriculture, such as rice paddies, livestock pasture and salt production. [23] Other drivers of mangrove forest destruction include activities that divert their sources of freshwater, such as groundwater withdrawals, the building of dams, and the building of roads and drainage canals across tidal flats.

Another indirect human activity, climate change, also threatens mangrove habitat. Sea levels are on the rise as polar ice caps melt from increasing temperatures and thermal expansion. [24] Depending on sediment accumulation, mangrove habitats will generally respond to sea level change in three different ways: [24] (1) If the sediment in the mangrove forest rises faster than the sea level, plants from further inland may move into the area as the mangroves retreat; (2) if the rate of sediment accumulation is equal to the rate of sea level rise, the forest survives and is stable during this period and (3) if the rate of soil accumulation is slower than the rate of sea level rise, the mangrove forest will be submerged by the sea. However, mangroves may then adapt and spread more inland as new territory is made for mangrove habitat. It is important to note that changes may deviate from these three general scenarios depending on local morphological/topographical features. [24] However, there are limits to the capacity of mangroves to adapt to climate change. It is projected that a 1-meter rise in sea level could inundate and destroy mangrove forests in many regions around the globe.

Mangroves play a vital role in delivering essential ecosystem services for the benefit of both humans and wildlife. The loss of these invaluable services will have a significant negative impact on the world. Mangrove habitat loss leaves coastal communities vulnerable to the risks of flooding, shoreline erosion, saline intrusion, and increased storm activity. [25] Ecosystem services such as water purification and collection of raw materials are not possible if mangroves are utilized unsustainably. [26] Furthermore, the decline of mangrove communities heavily impacts the plants and animals that rely on the habitat for survival. Loss of mangroves leads to reduced water quality, reduced biodiversity, increased sedimentation threatening coral reefs, and collapse of intertidal food webs and aquatic nurseries. [27] [26] Since mangroves are carbon sinks, their destruction can release large amounts of stored carbon and contribute to the effects of global warming. [26]

Restoration process

Mangroves are sensitive ecosystems, changing dynamically in response to storms, sediment blockage, and fluctuations in sea level [28] and present a “moving target” for restoration efforts. Different restoration approaches face this challenge in different ways. The most common method simply consists in planting single-species stands of mangroves in areas thought to be suitable, without consideration of whether or not they supported mangroves in the past. [29] This approach usually fails over the long term because the underlying soil and hydrological requirements of the mangroves are not being met. [28] [30]

More informed methods aim to bring a damaged mangrove area back into its preexisting condition, taking into account not only ecosystem factors but also social, cultural and political perspectives. [28] These approaches begin with the understanding that a damaged mangrove area may be able to repair itself through the natural processes of secondary succession, without being physically planted, provided that its tidal and freshwater hydrology is functioning normally and there is an adequate supply of seedlings. [31] If natural renewal does occur, Twilley et al. 1996 predicts species composition will be largely determined by the very earliest saplings to colonize the recovering stand. This prediction is supported by the actual studies of Clarke et al. 2000, Clarke et al. 2001, Ross et al. 2006 and Sousa et al. 2007. [32] : 5 

Taking this into account, it becomes crucial[ editorializing ] to the success of a restoration project to evaluate what the hydrology of a disturbed mangrove site should look like under normal conditions, and the ways in which it has been modified. One example of this approach is the Ecological Mangrove Restoration method [31] which recommends the following steps, to be undertaken using healthy mangroves of the surrounding area as a reference:[ citation needed ]

  1. Assess the ecology, especially reproduction and distribution patterns, of the mangrove species at the disturbed site;
  2. Map the topographical elevations and hydrological patterns that determine how seedlings should establish themselves at the site;
  3. Assess the changes made to the site that currently prevent the site from recovering by itself;
  4. Design a restoration plan that begins by restoring the normal range of elevations and tidal hydrology at the site; and
  5. Monitor the site to determine if the restoration has been successful in light of the original objectives.

This may include introducing structures such as detached breakwaters, to protect the site from wave action and allow for adequate sediment build-up. [33] The actual planting of seedlings is a last resort, since it fails in many cases; [31] it should be considered only if natural recruitment of seedlings fails to reach the restoration objective.

External videos
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg Drones planting one billion trees at a time, Susan Graham, Hello Tomorrow Challenge Grand Finale, Biocarbon Engineering Summit, 2015
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg These seed-firing drones plant thousands of trees each day, World Economic Forum

Restoring mangroves by traditional methods, manually, is slow and difficult work. An alternative has been proposed to use quadcopters to carry and deposit seed pods. According to Irina Fedorenko and Susan Graham of BioCarbon Engineering, a drone can do an amount of work in days that is equivalent to weeks of planting by humans using traditional methods, at a fraction of the cost. Drones can also carry and plant seeds in difficult-to-reach or dangerous areas where humans cannot work easily. Drones can be used to develop planting patterns for areas and to monitor growth of new forests. [34]

Stakeholder engagement

An important but often overlooked aspect of mangrove restoration efforts is the role that the local communities play as stakeholders in the process and the outcome. If a restoration project is put in place without support of the local community, it may result in backlash, wasted funding, and wasted efforts. [35] An important aspect to consider is whether society deems if restoration of mangroves is worth the investment effort. This is ultimately determined by human self interest, and whether the decision will maximize their personal utility. [35] Another obstacle that projects may face is how to quantify the economic value of mangrove restoration. Ecological services of mangroves are difficult to determine, "as most of them are of indirect nature and non-marketed." [35] Support of local communities are a crucial aspect in the long-term success of mangrove restoration. Not only can locals provide knowledge about the environment, their participation through employment and funding strategies will encourage them to keep maintaining the mangroves after initial success of the project. [35]

Local community takes care of Mangrove Plantation in Sundarbans. Mangrove Plantation in Sundarbans.jpg
Local community takes care of Mangrove Plantation in Sundarbans.

A case study in the Philippines gathered data on local people's participation in a mangrove restoration project. Locals can play a major participatory role in mangrove restoration projects, so encouraging and strengthening their participation is particularly important. However, in order for participation to occur, there must be benefits and incentives provided to engage the community. If benefits are not received, local people are discouraged from participating. [36] This study found that participation in mangrove restoration improves livelihoods and increases social capital, which directly benefits their access to information and services. Participation in mangrove restoration can provide more than just tangible benefits, it also leads to more sustainable and long-term rewards. [36]

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation

In 2008, the United Nations launched the "Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD)" program to combat climate change through the reduction of carbon emissions and enhancement of carbon sinks from forests. [37] It is the opinion of literary scholars that the REDD program can increase carbon sequestration from mangroves and therefore reduce carbon in the atmosphere. [38] [39] The REDD+ mechanism, as part of the REDD program, provides financial support to stakeholders in developing countries to avoid deforestation and forest degradation. [40] The estimated impacts of REDD+ globally, could reach up to 2.5 billion tons of CO2 each year. [41] An examples of REDD+ implementation can be seen in Thailand, where carbon markets give farmers incentive to conserve mangrove forests, by compensating for the opportunity cost of shrimp farming. [42]

Mangroves for the Future

Moreover, the Mangroves for the Future (MFF) initiative, led by IUCN and UNDP, encourages the rehabilitation of mangroves by engaging with local stakeholders and creating a platform for change. [43] In Indonesia, one project planted 40,000 mangroves, which then encouraged local government to take up similar initiatives on a larger scale. [44] Mangrove restoration and protection is also seen as a climate change mitigation strategy under COP21, the international agreement to target climate change, with countries being able to submit the act in their Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Approaches (NAMAs). Ten of the world's least developed countries are now prioritizing mangrove restoration in their NAMAs. [45]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mangrove</span> Shrub growing in brackish water

A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows mainly in coastal saline or brackish water. Mangroves grow in an equatorial climate, typically along coastlines and tidal rivers. They have special adaptations to take in extra oxygen and to remove salt, which allow them to tolerate conditions that would kill most plants. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse, as a result of convergent evolution in several plant families. They occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics and even some temperate coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30° N and 30° S, with the greatest mangrove area within 5° of the equator. Mangrove plant families first appeared during the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene epochs, and became widely distributed in part due to the movement of tectonic plates. The oldest known fossils of mangrove palm date to 75 million years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wetland</span> Land area that is permanently, or seasonally saturated with water

Wetlands, or simply a wetland, is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently or seasonally. Flooding results in oxygen-free (anoxic) processes prevailing, especially in the soils. The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from terrestrial land forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, adapted to the unique anoxic hydric soils. Wetlands are considered among the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal species. Methods for assessing wetland functions, wetland ecological health, and general wetland condition have been developed for many regions of the world. These methods have contributed to wetland conservation partly by raising public awareness of the functions some wetlands provide. Constructed wetlands are designed and built to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as to divert stormwater runoff. Constructed wetlands may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mangrove crab</span> Crabs that live on or among mangroves

Mangrove crabs are crabs that live in and around mangroves. They belong to many different species and families and have been shown to be ecologically significant by burying and consuming leaf litter. Mangrove crabs have a variety of phylogenies because mangrove crab is an umbrella term that encompasses many species of crabs. Two of the most common families are sesarmid and fiddler crabs. They are omnivorous and are predated on by a variety of mammals and fish. They are distributed widely throughout the globe on coasts where mangroves are located. Mangrove crabs have wide variety of ecological and biogeochemical impacts due to the biofilms that live in symbiosis with them as well as their burrowing habits. Like many other crustaceans, they are also a human food source and have been impacted by humans as well as climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forestation</span>

Forestation is a vital ecological process where forests are established and grown through afforestation and reforestation efforts. Afforestation involves planting trees on previously non-forested lands, while reforestation focuses on replanting trees in areas that were once deforested. This process plays an important role in restoring degraded forests, enhancing ecosystems, promoting carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecosystem service</span> Benefits provided by healthy nature, forests and environmental systems

Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits to humans provided by the natural environment and healthy ecosystems. Such ecosystems include, for example, agroecosystems, forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems. These ecosystems, functioning in healthy relationships, offer such things as natural pollination of crops, clean air, extreme weather mitigation, and human mental and physical well-being. Collectively, these benefits are becoming known as ecosystem services, and are often integral to the provision of food, the provisioning of clean drinking water, the decomposition of wastes, and the resilience and productivity of food ecosystems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tidal marsh</span> Marsh subject to tidal change in water

A tidal marsh is a marsh found along rivers, coasts and estuaries which floods and drains by the tidal movement of the adjacent estuary, sea or ocean. Tidal marshes experience many overlapping persistent cycles, including diurnal and semi-diurnal tides, day-night temperature fluctuations, spring-neap tides, seasonal vegetation growth and decay, upland runoff, decadal climate variations, and centennial to millennial trends in sea level and climate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peat swamp forest</span> Tropical moist forests where waterlogged soil prevents dead leaves and wood from fully decomposing

Peat swamp forests are tropical moist forests where waterlogged soil prevents dead leaves and wood from fully decomposing. Over time, this creates a thick layer of acidic peat. Large areas of these forests are being logged at high rates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mangrove forest</span> Productive wetlands that occur in coastal intertidal zones

Mangrove forests, also called mangrove swamps, mangrove thickets or mangals, are productive wetlands that occur in coastal intertidal zones. Mangrove forests grow mainly at tropical and subtropical latitudes because mangroves cannot withstand freezing temperatures. There are about 80 different species of mangroves, all of which grow in areas with low-oxygen soil, where slow-moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon sequestration</span> Storing carbon in a carbon pool (natural as well as enhanced or artificial processes)

Carbon sequestration is the process of storing carbon in a carbon pool. Carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process but it can also be enhanced or achieved with technology, for example within carbon capture and storage projects. There are two main types of carbon sequestration: geologic and biologic.

The Lower Guinean forests also known as the Lower Guinean-Congolian forests, are a region of coastal tropical moist broadleaf forest in West Africa, extending along the eastern coast of the Gulf of Guinea from eastern Benin through Nigeria and Cameroon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freshwater swamp forest</span> Forest growing on an alluvial zone

Freshwater swamp forests, or flooded forests, are forests which are inundated with freshwater, either permanently or seasonally. They normally occur along the lower reaches of rivers and around freshwater lakes. Freshwater swamp forests are found in a range of climate zones, from boreal through temperate and subtropical to tropical.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wetland conservation</span> Conservation of wet areas

Wetland conservation is aimed at protecting and preserving areas of land including marshes, swamps, bogs, and fens that are covered by water seasonally or permanently due to a variety of threats from both natural and anthropogenic hazards. Some examples of these hazards include habitat loss, pollution, and invasive species. Wetland vary widely in their salinity levels, climate zones, and surrounding geography and play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity, ecosystem services, and support human communities. Wetlands cover at least six percent of the Earth and have become a focal issue for conservation due to the ecosystem services they provide. More than three billion people, around half the world's population, obtain their basic water needs from inland freshwater wetlands. They provide essential habitats for fish and various wildlife species, playing a vital role in purifying polluted waters and mitigating the damaging effects of floods and storms. Furthermore, they offer a diverse range of recreational activities, including fishing, hunting, photography, and wildlife observation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological values of mangroves</span>

Mangrove ecosystems represent natural capital capable of producing a wide range of goods and services for coastal environments and communities and society as a whole. Some of these outputs, such as timber, are freely exchanged in formal markets. Value is determined in these markets through exchange and quantified in terms of price. Mangroves are important for aquatic life and home for many species of fish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue carbon</span> Carbon stored in coastal and marine ecosystems

Blue carbon is a term used in the climate change mitigation context that refers to "biologically driven carbon fluxes and storage in marine systems that are amenable to management." Most commonly, it refers to the role that tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses can play in carbon sequestration. Such ecosystems can contribute to climate change mitigation and also to ecosystem-based adaptation. When blue carbon ecosystems are degraded or lost they release carbon back to the atmosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation and climate change</span> Relationship between deforestation and global warming

Deforestation is a primary contributor to climate change, and climate change affects forests. Land use changes, especially in the form of deforestation, are the second largest anthropogenic source of atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions, after fossil fuel combustion. Greenhouse gases are emitted during combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon. Global models and national greenhouse gas inventories give similar results for deforestation emissions. As of 2019, deforestation is responsible for about 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation are accelerating. Growing forests are a carbon sink with additional potential to mitigate the effects of climate change. Some of the effects of climate change, such as more wildfires, insect outbreaks, invasive species, and storms are factors that increase deforestation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nature-based solutions</span> Sustainable management and use of nature for tackling socio-environmental challenges

Nature-based solutions (NBS) is the sustainable management and use of natural features and processes to tackle socio-environmental issues. These issues include climate change, water security, water pollution, food security, human health, biodiversity loss, and disaster risk management. The European Commission's definition of NBS states that these solutions are "inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience. Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes, and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions". In 2020, the EC definition was updated to further emphasise that "Nature-based solutions must benefit biodiversity and support the delivery of a range of ecosystem services." Through the use of NBS healthy, resilient, and diverse ecosystems can provide solutions for the benefit of both societies and overall biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Niger Delta mangroves</span> Mangrove forest within a deltaic depositional environment

Nigeria has extensive mangrove forests in the coastal region of the Niger Delta. Considered one of the most ecologically sensitive regions in the world, the Niger Delta mangrove forest is situated within a deltaic depositional environment. These mangrove forests serve a critical role in regional ecological and landscape composition, and support subsistence gathering practices, and market-based income opportunities. Anthropogenic development threatens the survival of Niger Delta mangrove populations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon farming</span> Agricultural methods that capture carbon

Carbon farming is a name for a variety of agricultural methods aimed at sequestering atmospheric carbon into the soil and in crop roots, wood and leaves. The aim of carbon farming is to increase the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material with the goal of creating a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. Increasing a soil's organic matter content can aid plant growth, increase total carbon content, improve soil water retention capacity and reduce fertilizer use. Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine coastal ecosystem</span> Wildland-ocean interface

A marine coastal ecosystem is a marine ecosystem which occurs where the land meets the ocean. Marine coastal ecosystems include many very different types of marine habitats, each with their own characteristics and species composition. They are characterized by high levels of biodiversity and productivity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sedimentation enhancing strategy</span>

Sedimentation enhancing strategies are environmental management projects aiming to restore and facilitate land-building processes in deltas. Sediment availability and deposition are important because deltas naturally subside and therefore need sediment accumulation to maintain their elevation, particularly considering increasing rates of sea-level rise. Sedimentation enhancing strategies aim to increase sedimentation on the delta plain primarily by restoring the exchange of water and sediments between rivers and low-lying delta plains. Sedimentation enhancing strategies can be applied to encourage land elevation gain to offset sea-level rise. Interest in sedimentation enhancing strategies has recently increased due to their ability to raise land elevation, which is important for the long-term sustainability of deltas.

References

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  27. ↑ Ellison, Aaron M.; Felson, Alexander J.; Friess, Daniel A. (2020-05-15). "Mangrove Rehabilitation and Restoration as Experimental Adaptive Management". Frontiers in Marine Science. 7. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00327 . ISSN   2296-7745.
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  29. ↑ "Ecological Mangrove Restoration in Thailand". Wetlands International. 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-10-10.
  30. ↑ Zimmer, Katarina (22 July 2021). "Many mangrove restorations fail. Is there a better way?". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-072221-1. S2CID   237694797 . Retrieved 11 August 2021.
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  32. ↑ Alongi, Daniel M. (2008). "Mangrove forests: Resilience, protection from tsunamis, and responses to global climate change". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science . Estuarine Coastal Sciences Association (Elsevier). 76 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2007.08.024. ISSN   0272-7714.
  33. ↑ Kamali, Babak; Hashim, Roslan (February 2011). "Mangrove restoration without planting" (PDF). Ecological Engineering. 37 (2): 387–391. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2010.11.025.
  34. ↑ Guest, Peter (April 28, 2019). "Tropical forests are dying. Seed-slinging drones can save them". WIRED. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
  35. 1 2 3 4 Stone, Kathy; Bhat, Mahadev; Bhatta, Ramachandra; Mathews, Andrew (January 2008). "Factors influencing community participation in mangroves restoration: A contingent valuation analysis". Ocean & Coastal Management. 51 (6): 476–484. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2008.02.001. ISSN   0964-5691.
  36. 1 2 B. Valenzuela, Roswin; Yeo-Chang, Youn; Park, Mi Sun; Chun, Jung-Nam (2020-05-22). "Local People's Participation in Mangrove Restoration Projects and Impacts on Social Capital and Livelihood: A Case Study in the Philippines". Forests. 11 (5): 580. doi: 10.3390/f11050580 . ISSN   1999-4907.
  37. ↑ The United Nations (2016). "Our Work". UN REDD program.
  38. ↑ Marbà, Núria; Mazarrasa, Inés; Hendriks, Iris E.; Losada, Iñigo J.; Duarte, Carlos M. (November 2013). "The role of coastal plant communities for climate change mitigation and adaptation". Nature Climate Change. 3 (11): 961–968. Bibcode:2013NatCC...3..961D. doi:10.1038/nclimate1970. hdl: 10261/89851 . ISSN   1758-6798.
  39. ↑ Hutchison, James; Manica, Andrea; Swetnam, Ruth; Balmford, Andrew; Spalding, Mark (2014). "Predicting Global Patterns in Mangrove Forest Biomass" (PDF). Conservation Letters. 7 (3): 233–240. doi: 10.1111/conl.12060 . ISSN   1755-263X.
  40. ↑ "What is REDD+? - UN-REDD Programme Collaborative Online Workspace". www.unredd.net. Retrieved 2019-03-05.
  41. ↑ Kurnianto, Sofyan; Taberima, Sartji; Krisnawati, Haruni; Manuri, Solichin; Daniel C. Donato; Sasmito, Sigit D.; Warren, Matthew W.; Kauffman, J. Boone; Purbopuspito, Joko (December 2015). "The potential of Indonesian mangrove forests for global climate change mitigation". Nature Climate Change. 5 (12): 1089–1092. Bibcode:2015NatCC...5.1089M. doi:10.1038/nclimate2734. ISSN   1758-6798. S2CID   83018910.
  42. ↑ Yee, Shannon (2010-04-01). "REDD and BLUE Carbon: Carbon Payments for Mangrove Conservation".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  43. ↑ Forests, Shorthand-IUCN. "Mangroves against the storm". Shorthand. Retrieved 2019-03-17.
  44. ↑ "Communities take the lead to rehabilitate mangroves at Bahak Indah Beach, East Java, Indonesia". www.mangrovesforthefuture.org. Retrieved 2019-03-17.
  45. ↑ Finlayson, C. Max (2016), "Climate Change: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC)", The Wetland Book, Springer Netherlands, pp. 1–5, doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-6172-8_127-1 , ISBN   9789400761728

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