Effects of climate change on health in the United Kingdom

Last updated

Scorched grass in London during the 2022 heatwaves. Heatwave in London (9219).jpg
Scorched grass in London during the 2022 heatwaves.

Climate change has already affected the physical and mental health of people in the United Kingdom. The country's climate is becoming warmer, with drier summers and wetter winters. Health threats due to climate change in the UK include heatwaves, floods, storms, air pollution and new infectious diseases, among others.

Contents

Extreme heat waves have contributed to thousands of deaths per summer, especially in cities. Without climate change mitigation or adaptation, heat-related deaths could increase sixfold by the 2050s, particularly affecting children, the elderly and people with pre-existing conditions. Heat events also strain healthcare systems, leading to surges in emergency visits and exposing gaps in infrastructure.

Flooding in the UK presents another major threat, currently affecting over six million people, with this number expected to rise significantly as temperatures increase. Beyond physical risks, floods have severe long-lasting mental health consequences, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Climate change also facilitates the spread of diseases like Lyme disease and leptospirosis through warming temperatures and habitat changes that bring humans into closer contact with disease-carrying organisms.

Climate change is also affecting indoor and outdoor air quality in the UK such as contributing to longer allergy seasons in the UK and by contributing to mould growth and an increase in pollens and other pollutants, affecting respiratory and cardiovascular health. Additionally, climate disruptions to food systems reduce crop yields, increase reliance on imports, and raise food costs, disproportionately affecting low-income households and contributing to poor diets, obesity, and related illnesses. Mental health is also heavily impacted, with extreme weather and climate change anxiety driving distress, particularly among younger populations.

The UK is working toward net-zero emissions by 2050, focusing on decarbonizing energy, transport, and housing. The National Health Service (NHS) is implementing resilience measures to address climate-related health challenges, while nature-based solutions like urban greening mitigate impacts. However, health inequalities, particularly in low-income communities, exacerbate vulnerability to climate risks. Addressing these disparities is crucial to ensuring equitable health outcomes as the country confronts the growing impacts of climate change.

Changes to UK climate

The weather and climate of the United Kingdom has already been affected by human-caused climate change. [1] The country's climate is becoming warmer, with drier summers and wetter winters. The frequency and intensity of storms, floods, droughts and heatwaves is increasing, and sea level rise is impacting coastal areas. This trend is expected to continue. [2]

Heat events are becoming longer, more frequent and intense. [3] Due to climate change, 2023 was the UK's second warmest year with the warmest June on record and a September heatwave. [1]

Extreme weather

Heat

The United Kingdom has experienced a significant increase in severe heat waves. [4] [5] Increasingly intense and prolonged heat periods can have dire health consequences. Extreme heat has already caused the death of people who would not have died without these weather events, especially in cities. [2] [6] [7] In England, over the past two decades there were an increasing number of deaths due to heat-related causes. [8] For instance, 2,985 all-cause excess deaths – meaning people who are not expected to die during this period – were recorded during the heatwaves of 2022 in England. [4] [2]

Without climate change mitigation or adaptation measures, heat deaths are projected to increase in the UK due to a combination of climate change and the ageing of population. [9] The risk of heat-related death increases with age. With no additional adaptation and limited global decarbonisation, heat-related deaths could increase nearly 6-fold from an estimated average of 1,602 deaths per year in the 2007-2018 period to 10,889 deaths per year in the 2050s. [10] It is estimated that each 1°C rise in mean temperature is associated with an 18% increased risk of heat-related illness and 35% increased risk of heat-related death. [11]

Current knowledge regarding the number of heat-related deaths and hospital admissions for UK nations other than England is very limited. In Northern Ireland, it is estimated that there are 30 estimated heat-related deaths per year. [12] In Scotland there are 70 estimated heat-related deaths per year. It is also assumed that impacts in southern Scotland may be similar to those observed in northern England. [13] In Wales, there are no official reports or mortality numbers of recent heatwaves, but there are 110 estimated heat-related deaths per year. [14] The number of deaths from heat are expected to rise in Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales too. [15] [9]

Although heat has a negative impact on the health of the entire population, some factors may increase the risk of adverse outcomes. [16] People who are at an increased risk of dying from heat exposure include the elderly, young children, those who have low socioeconomic status or pre-existing diseases. [16] People over 65-year-olds have the highest risk of death. [8] The UK has an ageing population, which could contribute to increasing number of deaths related to heat over time. [17]

Extended periods of heat exposure can cause an elevated risk of death from pre-existing cardiovascular (affecting the heart) and cerebrovascular diseases (affecting the brain). Extreme heat can cause a 17% increase in the risk of death due to cardiovascular disease, especially stroke and coronary heart disease. Women and over 65-year-olds are particularly vulnerable to heat-related cardiovascular disease and death. [18] At the same time being exposed to heat does not cause the development of new cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in itself. [16]

Extreme heat could also cause a 14% increase in the risk of dying for people with diabetes. [19] Heatwaves lasting for 3 or more consecutive days are also associated with a 6% increase in the risk of the development or worsening of a broad range of mental health conditions. [20]

Although taking medications (particularly those influencing body's heat regulation and the stability of the cardiovascular system) are potential risk factors for heat-related death, their exact impact is not known. [21]

In addition, heat events are causing significant disruption to the National Health Service (NHS). [22] There is a significant increase in A&E attendances due to heat stroke during heat periods. At the same time experts are uncertain about the exact impact of heat on the number of hospital admissions. [8] Emergency admissions between 2001 and 2012 increased because of extreme heat, especially among older and socioeconomically deprived groups. [23] In Greater London between 1994 and 2000 there were heat-related increases in emergency admissions for respiratory and kidney diseases, in children under 5, and for respiratory diseases in over 75-year-olds. At the same time this happened without an overall increase in hospital admissions perhaps due to bed capacity. [24] The substantial increase in the number of deaths without a comparable increase in hospital admissions might be explained by rapid deterioration that prevents vulnerable individuals from asking for help or getting to a hospital before dying. [8]

Information regarding how heat impacts people who are already in medical facilities (inpatients) is limited. For instance, the heat events in 2020 caused significant increases in hospital deaths, but the underlying causes and risk factors for these excess deaths remain unknown. [25] Competing priorities, inappropriate facilities and equipment to cope with heat may all contribute to excess deaths in NHS hospitals. [26]

Different regions in the UK can be impacted by heat to a different degree. Regional differences might be due to differences in day and night-time temperatures, other environmental conditions, or population characteristics. [27]

The natural and built environment influences the temperature experienced indoors and outdoors. In Greater London in 2007-2016 temperatures were higher in neighbourhoods with lower levels of urban vegetation and with higher levels of income deprivation, social housing, and non-native English speakers. The number of heat-related deaths increased by about 3% for each 1°C increase in temperature. Vegetation cover afforded the largest reduction in the risk of heat-related death. [28] Based on heatwaves in the West Midlands in 2003-2006, it is estimated that reflective “cool” roofs could significantly reduce temperatures by 0.3°C (about 23% of the urban heat island effect). [29]

Besides changes in the environment, individual protective behaviours can also reduce the health consequences of heat. These behaviours include using fans, drinking water, immersing feet and hands in cold water. [30] However, recent public health messages about risk and protective behaviours may not be reaching the most heat-vulnerable people. During the level 3 heat-health alert in England in 2017 most heat-vulnerable did not consider themselves at risk and were unaware of protective behaviours. Only 25% reported changing their behaviour in response to hot weather-related health advice. Many vulnerable adults were more concerned about the effects of the ultra-violet radiation on the skin than the health effects of hot temperatures. [31]

Older people, men, lower income groups and those with lower education levels might be less likely to adopt personal protective behaviours. [32] A survey by the British Red Cross in 2023 reported that the public acknowledges that many people lack information about their risk and are unprepared to cope with heat events, particularly those who are likely to be the most vulnerable. [33]

Based on a 2022 survey, rising UK temperatures are the biggest impact of climate change that most British adults expect to experience by 2030. [34] Furthermore, 62% of adults in the UK are concerned about the impact of heat events on themselves. [33]

In the future the vulnerability of the British population to heat will depend on the ability to implement strategies for effective, sustainable, and equitable adaptation, which requires behaviour change by policy makers, service providers and individuals. [35] The ageing population and the increasing prevalence of chronic diseases, particularly multimorbidity, will exacerbate the impact of climate change, making people more vulnerable to extreme temperatures. [36] Therefore, public health policies and behaviour change interventions that promote healthy ageing and reduce risk factors for chronic diseases might improve heat resilience of the UK population. [37]

Floods

Flooding represents one of the most serious impacts of climate change in the UK, particularly for England. Currently more than 6 million people are at risk of flooding due to where they live. This is expected to rise 61% by 2050 with a modest warming of climate (2°C). If temperatures rise more (4°C), 118% more people will be threatened by flooding. [38] Climate change has increased the intensity of storms in the UK, making them more likely to produce heavy rainfall. These extreme weather events create more damaging floods. [39]

Besides threatening physical health, experiencing flooding also has a negative impact on mental health. [40] [41] More than a third of people who experienced flooding in England in 2013/14 had post-traumatic stress disorder a year after, while around 20-25% developed anxiety disorders or depression. [42] For many, the psychological symptoms persisted for years after the floods. [43]

Wildfires

Wildfires refer to an uncontrolled fire of vegetation where a decision is required whether to suppress it. [44] The UK has two fire seasons: spring and mid-late summer. Climate change is expected to significantly increase the number of days with a very high risk of wildfires, especially in the summer season. [45]

Chemicals

Various chemicals can be found in the environment, for example in the atmosphere, in water, soil, sediment and in living organisms. Changes in temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind conditions, erosion and extreme weather events due to climate change will affect the fate and behaviour of such chemicals. Climate change is likely to increase the release of chemicals, including contaminants from melting polar ice and high-altitude glaciers (which trap harmful chemicals). There is also likely to be increased release of chemicals due to higher temperatures and reduced precipitation, which can make persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and pesticides turn into gas and get into the atmosphere and potentially increase air pollution. [46]

Climate-sensitive infectious diseases

Vector-borne

Vector-borne diseases are infections caused by parasites, viruses and bacteria which are carried by animals (called vectors). Animal vectors are most commonly arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, midges, sand-flies and fleas. Interaction with these animal vectors may cause the infection to be transmitted to humans and other animals. [47] The most common vector-borne disease in the UK is Lyme disease which is carried by ticks. [48]

Because most vectors are insects and therefore cold-blooded they need external sources of heat and are directly affected by changes in the weather or climate. Warmer temperatures can lead to faster development of both the vector and the infectious agents that it transmits, increased survival, increased biting rate, and longer periods of the year when the vector is active. Geographical distributions of some vectors seem likely to expand due to climate change. [47] [49] Places in the UK that were historically unsuitable habitat for specific vectors include higher altitude and higher latitude areas. These may become more suitable because of higher ambient temperature, or if more breeding habitat becomes available. Additional breeding habitat can be created for example by heavy rainfall that leads to more pools of stagnant water that mosquitos need for breeding. Furthermore vectors can live in more places if winter temperatures do not drop below the minimum that vectors can survive. [47]

Climate change may also directly or indirectly cause changes in land use or biodiversity. These changes can destroy or create habitats that bring people into closer or more frequent contact with environments that have disease vectors. [47]

Besides humans, changes due to climate change in the UK in vector-borne disease infection rates may harm livestock, [50] wildlife [51] and pets as well. [52]

Changes in air quality

Outdoors

Allergies triggered by spores or pollen affect 11% of the UK population. Due to climate change, the season for some of these allergens might occur earlier and for some it might be more severe. [53]

Indoors

Milder winters can lead to increased levels of biological contaminants like house dust mite and fungi. Flooding can also lead to the presence of mould such as Cladosporium, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, and Stachybotrys fungi in flooded dwellings, which can cause respiratory issues. [54] [55] Climate change can impact indoor pollutant levels by influencing people's behavior. For instance, during hotter summers, people may open windows more often, which alters ventilation and allows outdoor pollutants to enter. [55]

If not properly installed, measures to improve housing energy efficiency, such as increased air tightness, can inadvertently lead to reduced air quality by trapping pollutants indoors. Poor ventilation can also exacerbate issues caused by biological contaminants, such as mould, leading to respiratory and cardiovascular problems. [54]

Food and water

Food insecurity

Food systems are both a driver of climate change and are also extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. With rising temperatures and worse weather projected by 2100, the nutrient content and yields of crops will likely be affected. [56] UK agriculture might initially benefit by extended growing seasons, but ongoing heating trends and increased extreme weather events will likely strain domestic food production. Domestic supply may drop especially for volatile crops such as fruit and vegetables, which has already reduced by at least 20% since the 1980s. [57] Increased pest pressure may also reduce yields for key crops, potentially intensifying reliance on imports, especially given the rise in demand for tropical fruits. The UK already heavily relies on imported foods from nations vulnerable to climate impacts, with 78% of its fruits and vegetables sourced from these regions. Climate-related sensitivity in exporting countries can disrupt supply chains, leading to shortages and price spikes in the UK. Such disruptions could particularly impact the availability of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, which are crucial for a healthy diet, leading to issues in food access, affordability, and ultimately, food insecurity. [56] [57]

In the UK in 2020, about 70,000 deaths were linked to insufficient intake of nutritious, plant-based foods, while nearly 42,000 deaths were associated with the overconsumption of dairy, red meat, and processed meats (e.g., meats that have undergone processing to enhance flavour or shelf life). Reduced access to and affordability of nutritious foods may further drive dietary shifts toward cheaper, processed, calorie-dense options. This could exacerbate existing public health issues such as obesity and other diet-related non-communicable diseases, by making it harder for people to afford or access fresh produce. [58] [59] Already, on average, healthy, nutritious foods cost £10 per 1,000 calories, while unhealthy foods that are more likely to cause obesity cost only £4.45 per 1,000 calories. This pattern is widening health inequalities, with individuals from low-income households in deprived socioeconomic areas being twice as likely to be obese and consuming 42% fewer fruits and vegetables than the recommended five daily portions. [58] [59] In this way, 20% of households with children report experiencing food insecurity, rising to 45% of households in receipt of Universal Credit. [60]

Impact on mental health

Direct effects

Experiencing an extreme weather event can have harmful mental health consequences, in general and in the United Kingdom as well. [61]

There are long-term mental health impacts from experiencing flooding in the United Kingdom, including anxiety during heavy rain, associated with panic attacks, sleep problems, difficulties with concentrating on daily activities, and use of alcohol and prescription medicine. [61] 30% of UK flood victims developed post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) whereas in the general population 7.8% of people develop the condition in their lifetime. [61]

Factors that increase the likelihood of psychological distress following flooding include water depth in the house, the absence of flood warnings, displacement (evacuation and temporary housing), and disruption to basic necessities (such as water supply, gas, electricity) and public services (such as health and education). [61]

Gender also affects how flooding is experienced and women are more likely to report PTSD and psychological distress after surviving a flood. Other demographic factors that might be associated with higher levels of distress are being under the age of 65, living in rental accommodation, having a lower income, being unemployed, and having prior medical conditions. Stress levels immediately after flooding are higher for those who are uninsured or have experienced problems with insurance companies. [61]

Based on the reported individual experiences of recovery after the 2013/2014 floods in Somerset, it seems that community as well as institutions (such as emergency services) play an important role in supporting mental health in the immediate aftermath and the longer-term. [62]

Exposure to extreme heat can also negatively impact mental health. Suicide risk, hospital admissions for people living with mental health conditions, anxiety, depression, acute stress have all been linked with extreme heat in the UK and beyond. [63] [64] [65] Heat itself can cause direct physiological changes, such as in blood flow or serotonin levels, and cognitive changes as a result of struggling to sleep. Those taking medication to manage existing mental health conditions may be more affected by heat as the side effects of some of these medications include changes in the regulation of body temperature. [64]

Climate change also disrupts the conditions communities need for good mental health and wellbeing. This includes impacts to air quality, food security, safe housing, transport, education and health care services. Climate change also interacts with other drivers of poor mental health, such as conflict and forced migration. [66] The slower changes caused by climate change, such as damages to land use and ecosystems, also have the potential to lead to mental health consequences. Access to and engagement with natural spaces has a positive effect on mental health. [67] [68] By threatening this, climate change could limit this important source of wellbeing for large sectors of the population. [69]

Indirect effects

To date, the UK is relatively well protected from direct climate effects, but indirect pathways via awareness of climate change and its implications have important psychological impacts. Such awareness can cause distress, anxiety, grief and overwhelm, sometimes called ‘climate anxiety’ or ‘eco distress’. [70] Strong emotions are part of a rational response to climate change, and can be a powerful motivator for taking climate action. [71] However, these emotions can be challenging to cope with, and climate anxiety can have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being. [72]

Large proportions of populations in countries around the world, including the UK, reported high levels of concern about climate change and distressing climate emotions. Such concern and distress might cause impaired mental health and functioning in young people aged 16 - 25 years [73] and adults. [74] During a survey conducted in 2022, 74% of adults in Great Britain expressed feeling concerned about climate change. This represents the second biggest concern reported by the adult population with only the rising cost of living worrying more people. [34]

Climate distress involves multiple unpleasant emotions including sadness, anger, anxiety, fear, hopelessness, despair, guilt and shame. [73] Although almost half of British people are very concerned about climate change, it is much less common that this concern reaches significant or impairing levels of climate distress with more cognitive, emotional and functional impacts. Both in the UK and beyond, it also appears that climate anxiety is greater in people who are younger, who feel more connected to nature, have higher general anxiety levels and in particular, who look more often for information about climate change. [75]

Both in the UK and beyond, having climate anxiety often comes together with having a lack of trust in and sense of betrayal from those in positions of power (such as governments) who are failing to act urgently and in line with the science to prevent the worst impacts of climate change. [73] Furthermore anxiety over climate change and government inaction is often paired with conflicted feelings of powerlessness and/or personal responsibility. These phenomenons have led to an argument that climate distress has a moral element in general [76] and in the UK as well. [77]

Pro-environmental behaviour, in the form of volunteering for local community groups, nature-based solutions, e.g., green and social prescribing, and climate activism may protect against anxiety, but these activities could also lead to burnout. [74]

Other health risks

Solar radiation

Climate change affects how much radiation from the sun (including ultraviolet radiation) reaches the Earth’s surface. [78] Only small increases in solar radiation are expected for the UK. [79] However, increasing outdoor temperatures in the UK could lead to people spending more time outdoors, which would increase exposure to solar radiation in general. This may give a health benefit through increased vitamin D, but also may increase skin cancer risks, so the overall effect on health is unclear. [15]

Effects on specific groups

Children

Children are particularly susceptible to health effects of climate change as their bodies are still developing. [80] [81] Rising global temperatures will expose them to unprecedented physical and psychological health risks. [82] [81] Children are more prone to heat stress because they cannot regulate their body temperature as effectively as adults. [83] Children are particularly vulnerable to poor air quality due to their faster breathing rates and higher air intake relative to their body weight, which increases their exposure to toxic substances in the air. [84]

The psychological effects of climate change are greater in younger age groups, possibly because they have the least power to enact changes, and will face the worst effects of climate change in their lifetime compared to older groups. [73] [75] Climate anxiety and a lack of confidence in government responses is impacting negatively on children and young people resulting in negative beliefs and symptoms of climate distress and climate anxiety. [85] According to UNICEF, nine out of 10 British children are worried about climate change. More than two thirds (73.5%) of these children feel that climate change will affect their human rights in the future. [86] [87]

Maternal and women's health

Extreme heat presents health risks to pregnant women and their babies. Exposure to heat during can cause changes in the body's heat regulation which can lead to adverse maternal outcomes, including preterm birth, low birth weight, stillbirth, birth defects, gestational diabetes, hypertension disorders, and maternal stress. [88] Higher temperatures are linked to reduced birth weight and each 1°C rise in temperature increases the risk of stillbirths. Preterm births are more common at higher than lower temperatures, especially among women in lower socioeconomic groups and at age extremes. [89] Prenatal exposure to air pollution has been linked with low birth weight, pre-term birth, a greater risk of preeclampsia in women, as well as later compromised lung function and autism spectrum in childhood. [90]

Elderly

The UK’s elderly population are particularly vulnerable to extreme weather events, especially heatwaves and floods due to pre-existing health problems and reduced mobility. [91]

Mitigation and adaptation

Climate change mitigation helps to prevent climate change, while adaptation aims to reduce the impacts of climate change. [92]

The UK has committed to reaching net zero by 2050. To achieve this, the government plans to implement several strategies to reduce emissions across the economy. These strategies include sourcing all electricity from low carbon sources, investing in and accelerating the deployment of renewable infrastructure, upscaling hydrogen production, regulating the oil and gas industry, engaging with companies to align with net zero targets, decarbonising the transport sector, and upgrading heating and buildings to optimise energy efficiency. [93]

Recognising the interconnection between health and climate, NHS England has also committed to mitigating its climate impact and aims to reach net zero by 2045. [94] NHS England is estimated to produce 25 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents, approximately 4% of the UK's greenhouse gas emissions. [95] To meet their net zero target, NHS England aims to optimise its estates and facilities, reduce emissions from travel and transport, for example by electrifying its transport fleet and promoting cycling and other modes of transport for staff, decarbonise their supply chain (e.g., employing the NHS Supplier Roadmap which requires suppliers to align with the NHS's net zero target and develop a decarbonisation plan), and use low-carbon medical equipment and pharmaceuticals where possible. [94] For example, desflurane, an anaesthetic gas, has a global warming potential approximately 2,500 times greater than carbon dioxide. [96] NHS Scotland became the first health system globally to fully cease the use of desflurane. [97]

Coupled with mitigation efforts, are strategies to adapt to the effects of climate change. The UK has developed its third National Adaptation Programme (NAP3) to adapt to climate change. Examples of the UK's adaptation approach the UK is taking to adapt include building flood defences to protect against rising sea levels, planning for more green spaces to reduce the urban heating effect, and building infrastructure to withstand the effects of climate change. [98]

Increasing the climate resilience of the NHS is a crucial component of climate adaptation. Climate change, and associated extreme weather events, can significantly disrupt health service delivery and access to health facilities, in addition to increasing the burden of climate-related health conditions. The UK's Health and Care Adaptation Report proposes methods to assess the climate vulnerability and adaptation capacity of the UK's population, as well as monitor impacts of climate change on health and service delivery. These methods include early surveillance of environmental health data (e.g., occurrence and impacts of extreme weather events, air quality exposure) and incidence of climate-related conditions; and the Strategic Health Asset Planning and Evaluation (SHAPE) tool which health services can use to map out local climate risks, develop emergency responses, and community plans. Upgrading infrastructure, preparing the workforce, and protecting supply chains are also key components of health system adaptation and resilience. [99] However, obstacles to health system adaptation and mitigation efforts include poor policy implementation, lack of political commitment, inadequate data, financial constraints, and challenges in integrating these changes into existing health care structures. [100]

Nature-based solutions

Nature-based solutions address societal challenges such as climate change or natural disasters by protecting, managing or restoring natural or modified ecosystems for the benefit of humans and nature simultaneously. Examples of nature-based solutions include urban trees, urban green and blue space, and afforested landscapes. [101] [102]

Nature-based solutions such as green roofs and green and blue infrastructure can reduce the urban heat island effect and reduce ambient temperature in cities by shadowing and increasing evapotranspiration. In the UK, urban areas covered 100% by trees can be 10 degrees cooler than areas of continuous urban fabric. [103]

Planting of trees in the upper catchments, or river and wetland restoration can provide protection against flooding. These interventions can also be beneficial to health as a co-benefit by providing outdoor spaces for recreation and for improving mental health. [101] [104] Nature-based solutions also provide other benefits such as improving urban air quality, reducing particulate matter, and increasing of biodiversity and ambient environmental quality. [105]

Health impacts of net zero

Achieving net zero can have positive effects on health as proposed policy actions would lead to reduced air pollution, increased physical activity, and improved diet. [106] [107] A combination of emission reduction policies related to electricity generation, transport, home energy, active travel, and diets are predicted to result in British people gaining 2 million more cumulative life-years by 2050. [106]

The burning of fossil fuels is a major source of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), which has negative effects on cardiovascular and lung health. Therefore, transitioning away from fossil fuel burning for transport, heating, and electricity production can have health benefits. In the UK, the emissions of PM2.5 from road traffic are greater than that of the electricity generation system, as electricity production has already moved away from the kinds of fossil fuel (e.g. coal) that produce the greatest PM2.5. There is also a substantial emission of PM2.5 from burning of biofuels (mainly wood) for home heating. [106] [107] Decarbonising electricity production in line with the UKs net zero target is expected to reduce PM2.5 concentrations by more than 40% by 2050. This would save 500,000 to 1.1 million cumulative life years by 2154. [108]

Climate change mitigation policies affecting housing can also have positive effects on health and reduce carbon dioxide emission by 0.6 megatonnes. Upgrading housing infrastructure through changing building fabric, ventilation, and energy sources is estimated to save 850 disability-adjusted life years per million population, with the potential to gain 2,200 quality-adjusted life years per 10,000 people over the next 50 years. [108] Policies which improve home energy efficiency (e.g. through insulation) could reduce fuel poverty and cold-related deaths while simultaneously reducing greenhouse gas emissions. [106] [107]

Policies supporting active travel (e.g. walking, cycling) instead of fossil-fuel powered travel could also help reduce greenhouse gas emissions while having large health benefits through increased exercise. [107] If a quarter of the British population cycles regularly, the general death rate could fall by 11% in the UK. If England and Wales meets the European best practice for walking, cycling, and reduced car use, there is the potential for 7.6% reduction in ischaemic heart disease, stroke, dementia, diabetes, depression, and cancers. [108]

Similarly, decreasing consumption of red meat could improve health for many people and would generally reduce greenhouse gas emissions. [107] Replacing half of the UK’s meat and dairy consumption with cereals, vegetables, and fruits could reduce dietary emissions by 19% and avert 37,000 premature deaths. [108]

Social and cultural aspects

Impact on health systems

Increasing health risks due to climate change are expected to result in a growing demand for access to health care, placing an increasing burden on the UK’s health care system. [109]

Rising external temperatures can significantly affect in-patients and healthcare workers in care settings like hospitals. This is due to poor ventilation, insufficient cooling systems, building design, and the use of certain materials can lead to higher internal temperatures. Unsuitable thermal conditions in hospitals can affect hospital workers, causing physical discomfort that can impacting on their work performance and decision making. [110] [5]

Climate justice

Those who have contributed the least to climate change will experience the worst health impacts - this is true globally but also in the UK. Those with lower socioeconomic status will have less resources to both mitigate (e.g. less consumer power for green goods) and adapt to (e.g. home insulation, growing costs of food) climate change. [111]

Health equity

Health inequalities refer to avoidable, unfair and systematic differences in health between different groups of people. [112] For example, life expectancy varies by almost a decade between some of the least and most deprived parts of the UK. (e.g. around 86 years in Kensington & Chelsea and 76 in Blackpool). Equally important is healthy life expectancy which is the number of years someone can expect to live in good health. By this measure, the gap between the most and least deprived areas can be nearly two decades. [113]

Existing health inequalities are likely to impact individuals' and communities’ vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. Health inequalities overlap with other inequalities such as spatial and socio-ecoonomic disparities. For example, the most deprived communities often have less access to green spaces in their neighbourhoods. This exacerbates health inequalities, as these populations that are already more vulnerable to climate change impacts, also lack infrastructure like greenspaces that can mitigate the effects of climate change. [114]

The degree to which extreme weather impacts health — particularly mental health — is not solely determined by natural or individual causes. They are also affected by institutional support, gender inequalities, community dynamics, and personal agency. [115]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heat wave</span> Prolonged period of excessively hot weather

A heat wave or heatwave, sometimes described as extreme heat, is a period of abnormally hot weather. A time period of five consecutive days is often used to define a heat wave but the exact definition of a heat waves can vary for different countries. A heat wave is usually measured relative to the usual climate in the area and to normal temperatures for the season. Temperatures that humans from a hotter climate consider normal, can be regarded as a heat wave in a cooler area. This would be the case if the warm temperatures are outside the normal climate pattern for that area. High humidity often occurs during heat waves as well. This is especially the case in oceanic climate countries. Heat waves have become more frequent, and more intense over land, across almost every area on Earth since the 1950s, the increase in frequency and duration being caused by climate change.

Heat exhaustion is a heat-related illness characterized by the body's inability to effectively cool itself, typically occurring in high ambient temperatures or during intense physical exertion. In heat exhaustion, core body temperature ranges from 37 °C to 40 °C. Symptoms include profuse sweating, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, and lowered blood pressure, resulting from dehydration and serum electrolyte depletion. Heat-related illnesses lie on a spectrum of severity, where heat exhaustion is considered less severe than heat stroke but more severe than heat cramps and heat syncope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change</span>

Effects of climate change are well documented and growing for Earth's natural environment and human societies. Changes to the climate system include an overall warming trend, changes to precipitation patterns, and more extreme weather. As the climate changes it impacts the natural environment with effects such as more intense forest fires, thawing permafrost, and desertification. These changes impact ecosystems and societies, and can become irreversible once tipping points are crossed. Climate activists are engaged in a range of activities around the world that seek to ameliorate these issues or prevent them from happening.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health in the United States</span> Overall health of the population of the United States

The World Health Organization defines health as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being". Average life expectancy at birth was 78.7 in 2017. Heart diseases are responsible for the greatest number of deaths in the United States.

Health in the United Kingdom refers to the overall health of the population of the United Kingdom. This includes overall trends such as life expectancy and mortality rates, mental health of the population and the suicide rate, smoking rates, alcohol consumption, prevalence of diseases within the population and obesity in the United Kingdom. Three of these – smoking rates, alcohol consumption and obesity – were above the OECD average in 2015.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in California</span>

Climate change in California has resulted in higher than average temperatures, leading to increased occurrences of droughts and wildfires. Over the next few decades in California, climate change is predicted to further reduce water availability, increase wildfire risk, decrease agricultural productivity, and threaten coastal ecosystems. The state could also be impacted economically due to the rising cost of providing water to its residents along with revenue and job loss in the agricultural sector. Economic impacts also include inflation from rising insurance premiums, energy costs and food prices. California has taken a number of steps to mitigate impacts of climate change in the state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Russia</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Russia related to climate change

Climate change has serious effects on Russia's climate, including average temperatures and precipitation, as well as permafrost melting, more frequent wildfires, flooding and heatwaves. Changes may affect inland flash floods, more frequent coastal flooding and increased erosion reduced snow cover and glacier melting, and may ultimately lead to species losses and changes in ecosystem functioning.

More than 1,030 people were killed in the 2002 heatwave in South India. Most of the dead were poor and elderly and a majority of deaths occurred in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh. In the districts that were impacted most, the heat was so severe that ponds and rivers evaporated and in those same districts birds had fallen from the sky and animals were collapsing from the intense heat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on human health</span>

The effects of climate change on human health are profound because they increase heat-related illnesses and deaths, respiratory diseases, and the spread of infectious diseases. There is widespread agreement among researchers, health professionals and organizations that climate change is the biggest global health threat of the 21st century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on agriculture</span>

There are numerous effects of climate change on agriculture, many of which are making it harder for agricultural activities to provide global food security. Rising temperatures and changing weather patterns often result in lower crop yields due to water scarcity caused by drought, heat waves and flooding. These effects of climate change can also increase the risk of several regions suffering simultaneous crop failures. Currently this risk is regarded as rare but if these simultaneous crop failures did happen they would have significant consequences for the global food supply. Many pests and plant diseases are also expected to either become more prevalent or to spread to new regions. The world's livestock are also expected to be affected by many of the same issues, from greater heat stress to animal feed shortfalls and the spread of parasites and vector-borne diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on mental health</span>

The effects of climate change on mental health and wellbeing are being documented as the consequences of climate change become more tangible and impactful. This is especially the case for vulnerable populations and those with pre-existing serious mental illness. There are three broad pathways by which these effects can take place: directly, indirectly or via awareness. The direct pathway includes stress-related conditions caused by exposure to extreme weather events. These include post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Scientific studies have linked mental health to several climate-related exposures. These include heat, humidity, rainfall, drought, wildfires and floods. The indirect pathway can be disruption to economic and social activities. An example is when an area of farmland is less able to produce food. The third pathway can be of mere awareness of the climate change threat, even by individuals who are not otherwise affected by it. This especially manifests in the form of anxiety over the quality of life for future generations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Cambodia</span>

Cambodia is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Extreme weather events will occur more frequently; this includes floods, which already affect 90,000 residents annually, and heatwaves, with Cambodia already having one of the highest temperatures of the world. The temperature has increased since the 1960s by 0.18 °C per decade. It had the 7th lowest CO2 emissions in Asia in 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Indonesia</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Indonesia

Due to its geographical and natural diversity, Indonesia is one of the countries most susceptible to the impacts of climate change. This is supported by the fact that Jakarta has been listed as the world's most vulnerable city, regarding climate change. It is also a major contributor as of the countries that has contributed most to greenhouse gas emissions due to its high rate of deforestation and reliance on coal power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine heatwave</span> Unusually warm temperature event in the ocean

A marine heatwave is a period of abnormally high sea surface temperatures compared to the typical temperatures in the past for a particular season and region. Marine heatwaves are caused by a variety of drivers. These include shorter term weather events such as fronts, intraseasonal events, annual, and decadal (10-year) modes like El Niño events, and human-caused climate change. Marine heatwaves affect ecosystems in the oceans. For example, marine heatwaves can lead to severe biodiversity changes such as coral bleaching, sea star wasting disease, harmful algal blooms, and mass mortality of benthic communities. Unlike heatwaves on land, marine heatwaves can extend over vast areas, persist for weeks to months or even years, and occur at subsurface levels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychological impact of climate change</span> Aspect of climate change and society

The psychological impacts of climate change concerns effects that climate change can have on individuals' mental and emotional well-being. People experience a wide range of emotions as they grapple with the challenge of climate change between their short-term self-interest and their longer-term community interests. People respond to concerns about climate change in various ways: behaviorally, via acts that frequently indicate conflicting attitudes, emotionally, through affective responses, and cognitively, through assessments. There is a wealth of research demonstrating how emotions influence people's decisions in a variety of contexts, including social issues, and can be used to distill personal experiences. They may also relate to more generalized effects on groups and their behaviors, such as the urge to migrate from affected areas of the globe to areas perceived as less affected. These impacts can manifest in various ways and affect people of all ages and backgrounds. Some key psychological impacts of climate change include emotional states such as eco-anxiety, ecological grief, eco-anger or solastalgia. While troublesome, such emotions may not appear immediately harmful and can lead to a rational response to the degradation of the natural world motivating adaptive action.However, there can be other effects on health, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), for instance, as a result of witnessing or seeing reports of massive wildfires, which may be more dangerous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change and infectious diseases</span> Overview of the relationship between climate change and infectious diseases

Global climate change has increased the occurrence of some infectious diseases. Infectious diseases whose transmission is impacted by climate change include, for example, vector-borne diseases like dengue fever, malaria, tick-borne diseases, leishmaniasis, zika fever, chikungunya and Ebola. One mechanism contributing to increased disease transmission is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the insects that can carry the diseases. Scientists stated a clear observation in 2022: "The occurrence of climate-related food-borne and waterborne diseases has increased ."

Climate psychology is a field that aims to further our understanding of our psychological processes' relationship to the climate and our environment. It aims to study both how the climate can impact our own thoughts and behaviors, as well as how our thoughts and behaviors impact the climate. This field often focuses on climate change, both in our reaction to it and how our behaviors can be changed in order to minimize the impact humanity has on the climate. These behavior changes include: engaging with the public about climate change, contributing at a personal, communal, cultural and political level by supporting effective change through activists, scientists, and policy makers, and finally nurturing psychological resilience to the destructive impacts climate change creates now and in the future.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change and children</span> Study of the effects of climate change on children

Children are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change than adults. The World Health Organization estimated that 88% of the existing global burden of disease caused by climate change affects children under five years of age. A Lancet review on health and climate change lists children as the worst-affected category by climate change. Children under 14 are 44 percent more likely to die from environmental factors, and those in urban areas are disproportionately impacted by lower air quality and overcrowding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heat dome</span> Weather phenomenon

A heat dome is a weather phenomenon consisting of extreme heat that is caused when the atmosphere traps hot air as if bounded by a lid or cap. Heat domes happen when strong high pressure atmospheric conditions remain stationary for an unusual amount of time, preventing convection and precipitation and keeping hot air "trapped" within a region. This can be caused by multiple factors, including sea surface temperature anomalies and the influence of a La Niña. The upper air weather patterns are slow to move, referred to by meteorologists as an Omega block.

Extreme weather events can have a significant impact on mental health, particularly in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Extreme weather post-traumatic stress disorder occurs when someone experiences the symptoms of PTSD due to extreme weather events, such as tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and wildfires. There has been increasing frequency and severity of these events due to climate change, causing an increase in such cases.

References

  1. 1 2 Kendon, Mike; Doherty, Amy; Hollis, Dan; Carlisle, Emily; Packman, Stephen; McCarthy, Mark; Jevrejeva, Svetlana; Matthews, Andrew; Williams, Joanne; Garforth, Judith; Sparks, Tim (24 July 2024). "State of the UK Climate 2023". International Journal of Climatology. 44 (S1): 1–117. Bibcode:2024IJCli..44S...1K. doi:10.1002/joc.8553. ISSN   0899-8418.
  2. 1 2 3 "State of the past and future UK climate" (PDF). Health Effects of Climate Change (HECC) in the UK: 2023 report. UK Health Security Agency. 11 December 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  3. ↑ "Effects of climate change". Met Office. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
  4. 1 2 "Heat mortality monitoring report: 2022". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 14 December 2024. Retrieved 16 December 2024.
  5. 1 2 Bunn, Sarah; Mehrhof, Sara (23 May 2024). Public health impacts of heat (PDF). UK Parliament POST. doi:10.58248/PN723. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  6. ↑ Simpson, Charles H.; Brousse, Oscar; Taylor, Tim; Grellier, James; Taylor, Jonathon; Fleming, Lora E.; Davies, Mike; Heaviside, Clare (1 October 2024). "Modeled temperature, mortality impact and external benefits of cool roofs and rooftop photovoltaics in London". Nature Cities. 1 (11): 751–759. doi:10.1038/s44284-024-00138-1. ISSN   2731-9997. Archived from the original on 3 January 2025. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  7. ↑ Heaviside, Clare; Vardoulakis, Sotiris; Cai, Xiao-Ming (8 March 2016). "Attribution of mortality to the urban heat island during heatwaves in the West Midlands, UK". Environmental Health. 15 (S1): 27. Bibcode:2016EnvHe..15S..27H. doi: 10.1186/s12940-016-0100-9 . ISSN   1476-069X. PMC   4895726 . PMID   26961286.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Arbuthnott, Katherine G.; Hajat, Shakoor (5 December 2017). "The health effects of hotter summers and heat waves in the population of the United Kingdom: a review of the evidence". Environmental Health. 16 (S1): 119. Bibcode:2017EnvHe..16S.119A. doi: 10.1186/s12940-017-0322-5 . ISSN   1476-069X. PMC   5773858 . PMID   29219088.
  9. 1 2 Murage, Peninah; Macintyre, Helen L.; Heaviside, Clare; Vardoulakis, Sotiris; Fučkar, Neven; Rimi, Ruksana H.; Hajat, Shakoor (14 July 2024). "Future temperature-related mortality in the UK under climate change scenarios: Impact of population ageing and bias-corrected climate projections". Environmental Research. 259: 119565. Bibcode:2024ER....25919565M. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2024.119565. PMID   38971356. Archived from the original on 15 August 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  10. ↑ "Temperature effects on mortality in a changing climate" (PDF). Health Effects of Climate Change (HECC) in the UK: 2023 report. UK Health Security Agency. 11 December 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  11. ↑ Faurie, Clare; Varghese, Blesson M.; Liu, Jingwen; Bi, Peng (6 September 2022). "Association between high temperature and heatwaves with heat-related illnesses: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Science of the Total Environment. 852: 158332. Bibcode:2022ScTEn.85258332F. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158332. PMID   36041616.
  12. ↑ Evidence for the third UK Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA3). Summary for Northern Ireland (PDF). Climate Change Committee. 16 June 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  13. ↑ Evidence for the third UK Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA3). Summary for Scotland (PDF). Climate Change Committee. 16 June 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  14. ↑ Evidence for the third UK Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA3). Summary for Wales (PDF). Climate Change Committee. 16 June 2021.
  15. 1 2 Kovats, Sari; Brisley, Rachel (2021). "Health, communities and the built environment" (PDF). The Third UK Climate Change Risk Assessment Technical Report. Climate Change Committee. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  16. 1 2 3 Song, Xuping; Wang, Shigong; Hu, Yuling; Yue, Man; Zhang, Tingting; Liu, Yu; Tian, Jinhui; Shang, Kezheng (11 March 2017). "Impact of ambient temperature on morbidity and mortality: An overview of reviews". Science of the Total Environment. 586: 241–254. Bibcode:2017ScTEn.586..241S. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.212. PMID   28187945.
  17. ↑ Cole, Rebecca; Hajat, Shakoor; Murage, Peninah; Heaviside, Clare; Macintyre, Helen; Davies, Michael; Wilkinson, Paul (21 February 2023). "The contribution of demographic changes to future heat-related health burdens under climate change scenarios". Environment International. 173: 107836. Bibcode:2023EnInt.17307836C. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2023.107836. PMID   36822002.
  18. ↑ Liu, Jingwen; Varghese, Blesson M; Hansen, Alana; Zhang, Ying; Driscoll, Timothy; Morgan, Geoffrey; Dear, Keith; Gourley, Michelle; Capon, Anthony; Bi, Peng (June 2022). "Heat exposure and cardiovascular health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". The Lancet Planetary Health. 6 (6): e484 –e495. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00117-6. PMID   35709806. Archived from the original on 11 July 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  19. ↑ Song, Xuping; Jiang, Liangzhen; Zhang, Dongdong; Wang, Xinyi; Ma, Yan; Hu, Yue; Tang, Jing; Li, Xiayang; Huang, Wenqiang; Meng, Yuan; Shi, Anchen; Feng, Yan; Zhang, Yan (8 June 2021). "Impact of short-term exposure to extreme temperatures on diabetes mellitus morbidity and mortality? A systematic review and meta-analysis". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 28 (41): 58035–58049. Bibcode:2021ESPR...2858035S. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-14568-0. ISSN   0944-1344. PMID   34105073.
  20. ↑ Liu, Jingwen; Varghese, Blesson M.; Hansen, Alana; Xiang, Jianjun; Zhang, Ying; Dear, Keith; Gourley, Michelle; Driscoll, Timothy; Morgan, Geoffrey; Capon, Anthony; Bi, Peng (30 March 2021). "Is there an association between hot weather and poor mental health outcomes? A systematic review and meta-analysis". Environment International. 153: 106533. Bibcode:2021EnInt.15306533L. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106533. PMID   33799230.
  21. ↑ Meade, Robert D.; Akerman, Ashley P.; Notley, Sean R.; McGinn, Ryan; Poirier, Paul; Gosselin, Pierre; Kenny, Glen P. (9 September 2020). "Physiological factors characterizing heat-vulnerable older adults: A narrative review". Environment International. 144: 105909. Bibcode:2020EnInt.14405909M. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2020.105909. PMID   32919284. Archived from the original on 11 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  22. ↑ Hussain, Zainab (20 July 2022). "UK heatwave piles further pressure on stretched NHS services". BMJ. 378: o1834. doi:10.1136/bmj.o1834. ISSN   1756-1833. PMID   35858695.
  23. ↑ Rizmie, Dheeya; de Preux, Laure; Miraldo, Marisa; Atun, Rifat (14 July 2022). "Impact of extreme temperatures on emergency hospital admissions by age and socio-economic deprivation in England". Social Science & Medicine. 308: 115193. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115193. PMID   35843128. Archived from the original on 7 September 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  24. ↑ Kovats, R S; Hajat, S; Wilkinson, P (November 2004). "Contrasting patterns of mortality and hospital admissions during hot weather and heat waves in Greater London, UK". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 61 (11): 893–898. doi:10.1136/oem.2003.012047. ISSN   1351-0711. PMC   1757853 . PMID   15477282.
  25. ↑ Thompson, Ross; Landeg, Owen; Kar-Purkayastha, Ishani; Hajat, Shakoor; Kovats, Sari; O’Connell, Emer (18 May 2022). "Heatwave Mortality in Summer 2020 in England: An Observational Study". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 19 (10): 6123. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19106123 . ISSN   1660-4601. PMC   9141696 . PMID   35627660.
  26. ↑ Brooks, Katya; Landeg, Owen; Kovats, Sari; Sewell, Mark; OConnell, Emer (6 March 2023). "Heatwaves, hospitals and health system resilience in England: a qualitative assessment of frontline perspectives from the hot summer of 2019". BMJ Open. 13 (3): e068298. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-068298. ISSN   2044-6055. PMC   9990610 . PMID   36878654.
  27. ↑ Johnson, Helen; Kovats, R. Sari; McGregor, Glenn; Stedman, John; Gibbs, Mark; Walton, Heather; Cook, Lois; Black, Emily (2005). "The impact of the 2003 heat wave on mortality and hospital admissions in England". Health Statistics Quarterly (25): 6–11. ISSN   1465-1645. PMID   15804164. Archived from the original on 19 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  28. ↑ Murage, Peninah; Kovats, Sari; Sarran, Christophe; Taylor, Jonathon; McInnes, Rachel; Hajat, Shakoor (11 November 2019). "What individual and neighbourhood-level factors increase the risk of heat-related mortality? A case-crossover study of over 185,000 deaths in London using high-resolution climate datasets". Environment International. 134: 105292. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2019.105292. PMC   7103759 . PMID   31726356.
  29. ↑ Macintyre, H.L.; Heaviside, C. (5 April 2019). "Potential benefits of cool roofs in reducing heat-related mortality during heatwaves in a European city". Environment International. 127: 430–441. Bibcode:2019EnInt.127..430M. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2019.02.065. PMID   30959308. Archived from the original on 5 September 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  30. ↑ Hajat, Shakoor; O'Connor, Madeline; Kosatsky, Tom (12 February 2010). "Health effects of hot weather: from awareness of risk factors to effective health protection". The Lancet. 375 (9717): 856–863. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61711-6. PMID   20153519.
  31. ↑ Erens, Bob; Williams, Lorraine; Exley, Josephine; Ettelt, Stefanie; Manacorda, Tommaso; Hajat, Shakoor; Mays, Nicholas (6 September 2021). "Public attitudes to, and behaviours taken during, hot weather by vulnerable groups: results from a national survey in England". BMC Public Health. 21 (1): 1631. doi: 10.1186/s12889-021-11668-x . ISSN   1471-2458. PMC   8422617 . PMID   34488695.
  32. ↑ Khare, Swarna; Hajat, Shakoor; Kovats, Sari; Lefevre, Carmen E.; de Bruin, Wändi Bruine; Dessai, Suraje; Bone, Angie (10 September 2015). "Heat protection behaviour in the UK: results of an online survey after the 2013 heatwave". BMC Public Health. 15 (1): 878. doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-2181-8 . ISSN   1471-2458. PMC   4566312 . PMID   26357923.
  33. 1 2 "Policy brief: public perceptions of heatwaves in the UK" (PDF). British Red Cross. August 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2024.
  34. 1 2 "Worries about climate change, Great Britain: September to October 2022". Office for National Statistics (ONS). 28 October 2022. Archived from the original on 26 November 2024. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
  35. ↑ Turek-Hankins, Lynée L; Coughlan de Perez, Erin; Scarpa, Giulia; Ruiz-Diaz, Raquel; Schwerdtle, Patricia Nayna; Joe, Elphin Tom; Galappaththi, Eranga K; French, Emma M; Austin, Stephanie E; Singh, Chandni; Siña, Mariella; Siders, A R; van Aalst, Maarten K; Templeman, Sienna; Nunbogu, Abraham M (26 May 2021). "Climate change adaptation to extreme heat: a global systematic review of implemented action". Oxford Open Climate Change. 1 (1). doi:10.1093/oxfclm/kgab005. ISSN   2634-4068. Archived from the original on 3 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  36. ↑ Chen, Kai; Vicedo-Cabrera, Ana Maria; Dubrow, Robert (15 June 2020). "Projections of Ambient Temperature- and Air Pollution-Related Mortality Burden Under Combined Climate Change and Population Aging Scenarios: a Review". Current Environmental Health Reports. 7 (3): 243–255. Bibcode:2020CEHR....7..243C. doi:10.1007/s40572-020-00281-6. ISSN   2196-5412. PMID   32542573.
  37. ↑ Woolrych, Ryan; Haq, Gary; Latter, Briony (2023). Healthy ageing in a changing climate: creating inclusive, age-friendly, and climate resilient cities and communities in the UK (PDF). doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.16312.32008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 April 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  38. ↑ "Climate change, flooding, coastal change and public health" (PDF). Health Effects of Climate Change (HECC) in the UK: 2023 report. UK Health Security Agency. 11 December 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 August 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  39. ↑ "Climate change drives increase in storm rainfall". Met Office. Archived from the original on 16 September 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  40. ↑ Lawrance, Emma L.; Thompson, Rhiannon; Newberry Le Vay, Jessica; Page, Lisa; Jennings, Neil (4 July 2022). "The Impact of Climate Change on Mental Health and Emotional Wellbeing: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence, and its Implications". International Review of Psychiatry. 34 (5): 443–498. doi:10.1080/09540261.2022.2128725. ISSN   0954-0261. PMID   36165756.
  41. ↑ Brandt, Lasse; Adorjan, Kristina; Catthoor, Kirsten; Chkonia, Eka; Falkai, Peter; Fiorillo, Andrea; Gondek, Tomasz M.; Le Vay, Jessica Newberry; Rojnic, Martina; Meyer-Lindenberg, Andreas; Heinz, Andreas; Dom, Geert; Luykx, Jurjen J. (2024). "Climate change and mental health: Position paper of the European Psychiatric Association". European Psychiatry. 67 (1): e41. doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2024.1754. ISSN   0924-9338. PMC   11441337 . PMID   38778031.
  42. ↑ Waite, Thomas David; Chaintarli, Katerina; Beck, Charles R.; Bone, Angie; Amlôt, Richard; Kovats, Sari; Reacher, Mark; Armstrong, Ben; Leonardi, Giovanni; Rubin, G. James; Oliver, Isabel (28 January 2017). "The English national cohort study of flooding and health: cross-sectional analysis of mental health outcomes at year one". BMC Public Health. 17 (1): 129. doi: 10.1186/s12889-016-4000-2 . ISSN   1471-2458. PMC   5273816 . PMID   28129752.
  43. ↑ Mulchandani, Ranya; Armstrong, Ben; Beck, Charles R.; Waite, Thomas David; Amlôt, Richard; Kovats, Sari; Leonardi, Giovanni; Rubin, G. James; Oliver, Isabel (30 March 2020). "The English National Cohort Study of Flooding & Health: psychological morbidity at three years of follow up". BMC Public Health. 20 (1): 321. doi: 10.1186/s12889-020-8424-3 . ISSN   1471-2458. PMC   7104503 . PMID   32223747.
  44. ↑ "Wildfires position statement". National Fire Chiefs Council (NFCC). Archived from the original on 30 September 2024. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
  45. ↑ Belcher, Claire; Brown, Iain; Clay, Gareth; et al. (2021). UK wildfires and their climate challenges: Expert Led Report Prepared for the third Climate Change Risk Assessment (PDF) (Report). University of exter. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 August 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  46. ↑ "Impact of climate change on human exposure to chemicals in the UK" (PDF). Health Effects of Climate Change (HECC) in the UK: 2023 report. 11 December 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  47. 1 2 3 4 "Direct and indirect effects of climate change on vectors and vector-borne diseases in the UK" (PDF). Health Effects of Climate Change (HECC) in the UK: 2023 report. 11 December 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 April 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  48. ↑ "Lyme disease epidemiology and surveillance". UK Health Security Agency. 14 April 2022. Archived from the original on 25 November 2015. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
  49. ↑ Semenza, Jan C; Suk, Jonathan E (1 January 2018). "Vector-borne diseases and climate change: a European perspective". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 365 (2). doi:10.1093/femsle/fnx244. ISSN   1574-6968. PMC   5812531 . PMID   29149298.
  50. ↑ Gale, P.; Drew, T.; Phipps, L.P.; David, G.; Wooldridge, M. (1 May 2009). "The effect of climate change on the occurrence and prevalence of livestock diseases in Great Britain: a review". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 106 (5): 1409–1423. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2008.04036.x. PMC   7197753 . PMID   19191974.
  51. ↑ Meurens, François; Dunoyer, Charlotte; Fourichon, Christine; Gerdts, Volker; Haddad, Nadia; Kortekaas, Jeroen; Lewandowska, Marta; Monchatre-Leroy, Elodie; Summerfield, Artur; Wichgers Schreur, Paul J.; van der Poel, Wim H.M.; Zhu, Jianzhong (3 June 2021). "Animal board invited review: Risks of zoonotic disease emergence at the interface of wildlife and livestock systems". Animal. 15 (6): 100241. Bibcode:2021Anim...1500241M. doi:10.1016/j.animal.2021.100241. PMC   8172357 . PMID   34091225.
  52. ↑ Taylor, C.; Brodbelt, D.C.; Dobson, B.; Catchpole, B.; O’Neill, D.G.; Stevens, K.B. (18 June 2021). "Spatio-temporal distribution and agroecological factors associated with canine leptospirosis in Great Britain". Preventive Veterinary Medicine. 193: 105407. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105407. PMC   8326249 . PMID   34153840.
  53. ↑ "Outdoor airborne allergenic pollen and fungal spores" (PDF). Health Effects of Climate Change (HECC) in the UK: 2023 report. UK Health Security Agency. 11 December 2023.
  54. 1 2 "Impact of climate change policies on indoor environmental quality and health in UK housing" (PDF). Health Effects of Climate Change (HECC) in the UK: 2023 report. UK Health Security Agency. 11 December 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 March 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  55. 1 2 Vardoulakis, Sotiris; Dimitroulopoulou, Chrysanthi; Thornes, John; Lai, Ka-Man; Taylor, Jonathon; Myers, Isabella; Heaviside, Clare; Mavrogianni, Anna; Shrubsole, Clive; Chalabi, Zaid; Davies, Michael; Wilkinson, Paul (30 October 2015). "Impact of climate change on the domestic indoor environment and associated health risks in the UK". Environment International. 85: 299–313. Bibcode:2015EnInt..85..299V. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2015.09.010. PMID   26453820.
  56. 1 2 "Climate change and food supply" (PDF). Health Effects of Climate Change (HECC) in the UK: 2023 report. UK Health Security Agency. 11 December 2023.
  57. 1 2 Scheelbeek, Pauline F. D.; Moss, Cami; Kastner, Thomas; Alae-Carew, Carmelia; Jarmul, Stephanie; Green, Rosemary; Taylor, Anna; Haines, Andy; Dangour, Alan D. (9 November 2020). "United Kingdom's fruit and vegetable supply is increasingly dependent on imports from climate-vulnerable producing countries". Nature Food. 1 (11): 705–712. doi:10.1038/s43016-020-00179-4. ISSN   2662-1355. PMC   7116398 . PMID   33225313.
  58. 1 2 Plant-powered Planet: Building a Healthy & Sustainable Food System (PDF). UK Health Alliance on Climate Change. 2024.
  59. 1 2 2023 Lancet Countdown UK Policy Brief (PDF). Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change. 2023.
  60. ↑ "Families stuck in food insecurity are buying less fruit and veg as UK's health divide widens". The Food Foundation. Archived from the original on 12 December 2024. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
  61. 1 2 3 4 5 Cruz, Joana; White, Piran C. L.; Bell, Andrew; Coventry, Peter A. (19 November 2020). "Effect of Extreme Weather Events on Mental Health: A Narrative Synthesis and Meta-Analysis for the UK". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (22): 8581. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17228581 . ISSN   1660-4601. PMC   7699288 . PMID   33227944.
  62. ↑ Butler, Catherine; Walker-Springett, Kate; Adger, W. Neil (27 September 2018). "Narratives of recovery after floods: Mental health, institutions, and intervention". Social Science & Medicine. 216: 67–73. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.09.024. hdl:10871/37649. PMID   30268861.
  63. ↑ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (22 June 2023). Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.009. ISBN   978-1-009-32584-4. Archived from the original on 10 February 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  64. 1 2 Thompson, Rhiannon; Lawrance, Emma L; Roberts, Lily F; Grailey, Kate; Ashrafian, Hutan; Maheswaran, Hendramoorthy; Toledano, Mireille B; Darzi, Ara (July 2023). "Ambient temperature and mental health: a systematic review and meta-analysis". The Lancet Planetary Health. 7 (7): e580 –e589. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00104-3. PMID   37437999.
  65. ↑ Ige-Elegbede, Janet; Powell, Jane; Pilkington, Paul (3 May 2024). "A systematic review of the impacts of extreme heat on health and wellbeing in the United Kingdom". Cities & Health. 8 (3): 432–446. Bibcode:2024CitHe...8..432I. doi:10.1080/23748834.2023.2283240. ISSN   2374-8834.
  66. ↑ Lawrance, Emma L.; Thompson, Rhiannon; Newberry Le Vay, Jessica; Page, Lisa; Jennings, Neil (4 July 2022). "The Impact of Climate Change on Mental Health and Emotional Wellbeing: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence, and its Implications". International Review of Psychiatry. 34 (5): 443–498. doi:10.1080/09540261.2022.2128725. ISSN   0954-0261. PMID   36165756. Archived from the original on 7 October 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  67. ↑ Tillmann, Suzanne; Tobin, Danielle; Avison, William; Gilliland, Jason (27 June 2018). "Mental health benefits of interactions with nature in children and teenagers: a systematic review". Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 72 (10): 958–966. doi:10.1136/jech-2018-210436. ISSN   0143-005X. PMC   6161651 . PMID   29950520.
  68. ↑ Lackey, Nancy Qwynne; Tysor, Deborah A.; McNay, G. David; Joyner, Leah; Baker, Kensey H.; Hodge, Camilla (27 May 2021). "Mental health benefits of nature-based recreation: a systematic review". Annals of Leisure Research. 24 (3): 379–393. doi:10.1080/11745398.2019.1655459. ISSN   1174-5398. Archived from the original on 15 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  69. ↑ Gvein, Maren Haug; Davis, McKenna (2023). The nature – climate change – mental health nexus: A literature review (PDF) (Report). Berlin: Ecologic Institute.
  70. ↑ Clayton, Susan (2 July 2020). "Climate anxiety: Psychological responses to climate change". Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 74: 102263. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102263. PMID   32623280.
  71. ↑ Lawrance, Emma L.; Thompson, Rhiannon; Newberry Le Vay, Jessica; Page, Lisa; Jennings, Neil (4 July 2022). "The Impact of Climate Change on Mental Health and Emotional Wellbeing: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence, and its Implications". International Review of Psychiatry. 34 (5): 443–498. doi:10.1080/09540261.2022.2128725. ISSN   0954-0261. PMID   36165756.
  72. ↑ Gago, Tomás; Sargisson, Rebecca J.; Milfont, Taciano L. (16 January 2024). "A meta-analysis on the relationship between climate anxiety and wellbeing". Journal of Environmental Psychology. 94: 102230. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102230. Archived from the original on 6 September 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  73. 1 2 3 4 Hickman, Caroline; Marks, Elizabeth; Pihkala, Panu; Clayton, Susan; Lewandowski, R Eric; Mayall, Elouise E; Wray, Britt; Mellor, Catriona; van Susteren, Lise (December 2021). "Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey". The Lancet Planetary Health. 5 (12): e863 –e873. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00278-3. PMID   34895496. Archived from the original on 24 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  74. 1 2 Ogunbode, Charles A.; Doran, Rouven; Hanss, Daniel; Ojala, Maria; Salmela-Aro, Katariina; van den Broek, Karlijn L.; Bhullar, Navjot; Aquino, Sibele D.; Marot, Tiago; Schermer, Julie Aitken; Wlodarczyk, Anna; Lu, Su; Jiang, Feng; Maran, Daniela Acquadro; Yadav, Radha (14 October 2022). "Climate anxiety, wellbeing and pro-environmental action: correlates of negative emotional responses to climate change in 32 countries". Journal of Environmental Psychology. 84: 101887. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101887. Archived from the original on 10 September 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  75. 1 2 Whitmarsh, Lorraine; Player, Lois; Jiongco, Angelica; James, Melissa; Williams, Marc; Marks, Elizabeth; Kennedy-Williams, Patrick (5 September 2022). "Climate anxiety: What predicts it and how is it related to climate action?". Journal of Environmental Psychology. 83: 101866. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101866. Archived from the original on 10 July 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  76. ↑ Henritze, Evan; Goldman, Sonora; Simon, Sarah; Brown, Adam D (March 2023). "Moral injury as an inclusive mental health framework for addressing climate change distress and promoting justice-oriented care". The Lancet Planetary Health. 7 (3): e238 –e241. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00335-7. PMID   36889865.
  77. ↑ Zevallos Labarthe, Ines; Marks, Elizabeth (30 October 2024). "' When they're saying what is completely opposite to what you morally believe ': (in)action on climate change by State authorities and powerful bodies drives moral injury and eco-distress in UK young people". The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist. 17. doi:10.1017/S1754470X23000284. ISSN   1754-470X.
  78. ↑ "Solar radiation and public health" (PDF). Health Effects of Climate Change (HECC) in the UK: 2023 report. UK Health Security Agency. 11 December 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  79. ↑ Slingo, Julia (2021). "Latest scientific evidence for observed and projected climate change" (PDF). The third UK Climate Change Risk Assessment Technical Report. Climate Change Committee. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  80. ↑ Helldén, Daniel; Andersson, Camilla; Nilsson, Maria; Ebi, Kristie L; Friberg, Peter; Alfvén, Tobias (March 2021). "Climate change and child health: a scoping review and an expanded conceptual framework". The Lancet Planetary Health. 5 (3): e164 –e175. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30274-6. PMID   33713617. Archived from the original on 26 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  81. 1 2 Squires, Eleanor; Whiting, Lisa; Petty, Julia (3 April 2024). "Effects of climate change on the health of children and young people". Nursing Standard. 39 (4): 60–65. doi:10.7748/ns.2024.e12308. ISSN   0029-6570. PMID   38419409.
  82. ↑ Watts, Nick; Amann, Markus; Arnell, Nigel; Ayeb-Karlsson, Sonja; Belesova, Kristine; Boykoff, Maxwell; Byass, Peter; Cai, Wenjia; Campbell-Lendrum, Diarmid; Capstick, Stuart; Chambers, Jonathan; Dalin, Carole; Daly, Meaghan; Dasandi, Niheer; Davies, Michael (13 November 2019). "The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate". The Lancet. 394 (10211): 1836–1878. Bibcode:2019Lanc..394.1836W. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32596-6. PMC   7616843 . PMID   31733928.
  83. ↑ Bytomski, Jeffrey R.; Squire, Deborah L. (December 2003). "Heat illness in children". Current Sports Medicine Reports. 2 (6): 320–324. doi:10.1249/00149619-200312000-00007. ISSN   1537-890X. PMID   14583161.
  84. ↑ Schraufnagel, Dean E.; Balmes, John R.; Cowl, Clayton T.; De Matteis, Sara; Jung, Soon-Hee; Mortimer, Kevin; Perez-Padilla, Rogelio; Rice, Mary B.; Riojas-Rodriguez, Horacio; Sood, Akshay; Thurston, George D.; To, Teresa; Vanker, Anessa; Wuebbles, Donald J. (9 November 2018). "Air Pollution and Noncommunicable Diseases". Chest. 155 (2): 409–416. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2018.10.042. PMC   6904855 . PMID   30419235.
  85. ↑ Hickman, Caroline; Marks, Elizabeth; Pihkala, Panu; Clayton, Susan; Lewandowski, R Eric; Mayall, Elouise E; Wray, Britt; Mellor, Catriona; van Susteren, Lise (December 2021). "Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey". The Lancet Planetary Health. 5 (12): e863 –e873. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00278-3. PMID   34895496. Archived from the original on 24 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  86. ↑ "COP26 & COP27: Young people's views on Climate Change". Votes For Schools. Archived from the original on 15 December 2024. Retrieved 15 December 2024.
  87. ↑ "9 in 10 children are worried about climate change, finds new report from VotesforSchools and UK Committee for UNICEF (UNICEF UK) (clone)". UNICEF UK. Archived from the original on 15 December 2024. Retrieved 15 December 2024.
  88. ↑ "Adverse weather and health plan equity review and impact assessment 2024". UK Health Security Agency. Retrieved 15 December 2024.
  89. ↑ Chersich, Matthew Francis; Pham, Minh Duc; Areal, Ashtyn; Haghighi, Marjan Mosalam; Manyuchi, Albert; Swift, Callum P; Wernecke, Bianca; Robinson, Matthew; Hetem, Robyn; Boeckmann, Melanie; Hajat, Shakoor (4 November 2020). "Associations between high temperatures in pregnancy and risk of preterm birth, low birth weight, and stillbirths: systematic review and meta-analysis". BMJ. 371: m3811. doi:10.1136/bmj.m3811. ISSN   1756-1833. PMC   7610201 . PMID   33148618.
  90. ↑ Johnson, Natalie M.; Hoffmann, Aline Rodrigues; Behlen, Jonathan C.; Lau, Carmen; Pendleton, Drew; Harvey, Navada; Shore, Ross; Li, Yixin; Chen, Jingshu; Tian, Yanan; Zhang, Renyi (12 July 2021). "Air pollution and children's health—a review of adverse effects associated with prenatal exposure from fine to ultrafine particulate matter". Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine. 26 (1): 72. Bibcode:2021EHPM...26...72J. doi: 10.1186/s12199-021-00995-5 . ISSN   1342-078X. PMC   8274666 . PMID   34253165.
  91. ↑ "Older people". Climate Just. Archived from the original on 10 September 2024. Retrieved 18 December 2024.
  92. ↑ "What is the difference between adaptation and mitigation?". European Environment Agency. 20 August 2024. Archived from the original on 15 October 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  93. ↑ Net Zero Strategy: Build Back Greener (PDF). HM Government. 19 October 2021. ISBN   978-1-5286-2938-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  94. 1 2 Delivering a 'Net Zero' National Health Service (PDF). NHS England. 1 October 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  95. ↑ Tennison, Imogen; Roschnik, Sonia; Ashby, Ben; Boyd, Richard; Hamilton, Ian; Oreszczyn, Tadj; Owen, Anne; Romanello, Marina; Ruyssevelt, Paul; Sherman, Jodi D; Smith, Andrew Z P; Steele, Kristian; Watts, Nicholas; Eckelman, Matthew J (February 2021). "Health care's response to climate change: a carbon footprint assessment of the NHS in England". The Lancet Planetary Health. 5 (2): e84 –e92. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30271-0. PMC   7887664 . PMID   33581070.
  96. ↑ "Putting anaesthetic emissions to bed: commitment on desflurane". NHS England. 13 January 2023. Archived from the original on 19 December 2024. Retrieved 18 December 2024.
  97. ↑ Robinson, Julia (3 March 2023). "Scotland becomes first country to stop use of environmentally harmful desflurane". The Pharmaceutical Journal. Archived from the original on 20 December 2024. Retrieved 18 December 2024.
  98. ↑ "Understanding climate adaptation and the third National Adaptation Programme (NAP3)". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 20 December 2024. Retrieved 18 December 2024.
  99. ↑ Third Health and Care Adaptation Report (PDF). NHS England. December 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  100. ↑ Ansah, Edward Wilson; Amoadu, Mustapha; Obeng, Paul; Sarfo, Jacob Owusu (29 July 2024). "Health systems response to climate change adaptation: a scoping review of global evidence". BMC Public Health. 24 (1): 2015. doi: 10.1186/s12889-024-19459-w . ISSN   1471-2458. PMC   11285469 . PMID   39075368.
  101. 1 2 Sowińska-Świerkosz, Barbara; García, Joan (25 January 2022). "What are Nature-based solutions (NBS)? Setting core ideas for concept clarification". Nature-Based Solutions. 2: 100009. Bibcode:2022NBS.....200009S. doi:10.1016/j.nbsj.2022.100009. Archived from the original on 31 August 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  102. ↑ Nature-based solutions for climate change mitigation (PDF). United Nations Environment Programme and International Union for Conservation of Nature. 4 November 2021. ISBN   978-92-807-3897-1.
  103. ↑ Schwaab, Jonas; Meier, Ronny; Mussetti, Gianluca; Seneviratne, Sonia; Bürgi, Christine; Davin, Edouard L. (23 November 2021). "The role of urban trees in reducing land surface temperatures in European cities". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 6763. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.6763S. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-26768-w. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   8611034 . PMID   34815395.
  104. ↑ Nature-based Solutions for Climate Change in the UK: A Report by the British Ecological Society (PDF). London, UK. 2021.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  105. ↑ European Environment Agency. (2021). Nature-based solutions in Europe: policy, knowledge and practice for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction. EEA report. Luxembourg: European Environment Agency. doi:10.2800/919315. ISBN   978-92-9480-362-7.
  106. 1 2 3 4 Milner, James; Turner, Grace; Ibbetson, Andrew; Eustachio Colombo, Patricia; Green, Rosemary; Dangour, Alan D; Haines, Andy; Wilkinson, Paul (24 January 2023). "Impact on mortality of pathways to net zero greenhouse gas emissions in England and Wales: a multisectoral modelling study". The Lancet Planetary Health. 7 (2): e128 –e136. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00310-2. PMC   7614840 . PMID   36706771.
  107. 1 2 3 4 5 "Net zero: health impacts of policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions" (PDF). Health Effects of Climate Change (HECC) in the UK: 2023 report. UK Health Security Agency. 11 December 2023.
  108. 1 2 3 4 Milner, James; Hamilton, Ian; Woodcock, James; Williams, Martin; Davies, Mike; Wilkinson, Paul; Haines, Andy (30 March 2020). "Health benefits of policies to reduce carbon emissions". BMJ. 368: l6758. doi:10.1136/bmj.l6758. ISSN   1756-1833. PMC   7190375 . PMID   32229476.
  109. ↑ Evidence for the third UK Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA3). Summary for England (PDF). Climate Change Committee. 16 June 2021.
  110. ↑ NHS Net Zero Building Standard (PDF). NHS England. 22 February 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  111. ↑ Preston, Ian; Banks, Nick; et al. (18 February 2014). Climate change and social justice: an evidence review. Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Archived from the original on 20 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  112. ↑ "What Are Health Inequalities?". The King's Fund. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
  113. ↑ "Health inequalities in a nutshell". The King's Fund. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
  114. ↑ Health equity impacts of climate change: a rapid mapping review (PDF). UK Health Security Agency. 14 May 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  115. ↑ Dodd, Steven; Kragh-Furbo, Mette; Davies, Jessica; Butterfield, Scott; Morris, Abigail; Brown, Heather (30 September 2024). "Health impacts of climate change in the UK: A qualitative synthesis detailing the conjuncture of social structure, extreme weather, and mental health". SSM - Qualitative Research in Health. 6: 100475. doi:10.1016/j.ssmqr.2024.100475. PMC   11650396 . PMID   39697837.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.