Active mobility

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The urban bicycle, one of the most widespread and well-known vehicles for active mobility Cycliste a place d'Italie-Paris crop.jpg
The urban bicycle, one of the most widespread and well-known vehicles for active mobility

Active mobility, soft mobility, active travel, active transport or active transportation is the transport of people or goods, through non-motorized means, based around human physical activity. [1] The best-known forms of active mobility are walking and cycling, though other modes include running, rowing, skateboarding, kick scooters and roller skates. Due to its prevalence, cycling is sometimes considered separately from the other forms of active mobility. [2]

Contents

Public policies promoting active mobility tend to improve health indicators by increasing the levels of physical fitness and reducing the rates of obesity and diabetes, [3] [4] whilst also reducing the consumption of fossil fuels and consequent carbon emissions. [5] These policies are proven to result in large increases in active transportation for commuting: for example Portland, Oregon, was able to increase bicycle use 5-fold from 1990 to 2009 with pro-cycling programs. [6] Studies have shown that city level programs are more effective than encouraging active mobility on the individual level. [7]

Health

Health benefits of active mobility include alleviating urban pressures, reduced energy consumption and production, and improved quality of life. Commonly active transport prevents the chances of fatal disease rooted from pollution and environmental issues. [8] Active mobility improves health by decreasing air pollution from cars. [9] However, negative health problems can arise from inactive and sedentary lifestyles. The US Centers for Disease Control recommends increasing access to active transportation. [10] Multiple U.S. studies advocate for increased access to active transportation for everyone, including children, due to multiple health benefits. [11]

Sedentary people can lower their BMI by increasing physical activity. [12] A House of Commons of the United Kingdom Health Committee report about Obesity in 2004 recommended cycling and walking as key components to combat obesity. [13] Public Health England estimated in 2016 that in the UK, physical inactivity directly contributes to one in six deaths every year. [14] The PHE report notes that walking and cycling daily is effective to increase physical activity and reduce levels of obesity, as well as prevent cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, cancer and several mental illnesses, including depression. [14]

People exercising with active mobility on a rainy day Bike path in the rain.jpg
People exercising with active mobility on a rainy day

Physical exercise improves mental and physical health. [15] Cyclists and walkers perceive their environment differently than people driving in cars because cars block sensory inputs that active mobility exposes. [16] Proponents of active mobility assert that activities like cycling and walking promote a feeling of community and connection, improving mental health and overall wellbeing. [16]

Providing good infrastructure for active mobility effectively promotes this type of transportation to decrease traffic and urban congestion. [8] Cycling and walking can save money by reducing money spent on gasoline. [17] Consequences of cycling and walking include increased exposure to air pollution, noise, and more frequent accidents. [17] Cycling reduces the need for large roads and parking lots as bikes occupy 8% of available space compared to cars. [17] As cycling and walking increases, urban infrastructure can be transformed to parks to add green space to urban environments. [17] Aesthetically pleasing areas can become optimal places for walking and cycling in cities. [18] Urban environments can also be transformed into walkable areas, which can benefit the elderly, but safety can be problematic if areas are congested with cars. [19] Designing safe walkable areas in cities can increase the popularity of walking, decrease physical inactivity, and improve health. [19]

Additionally, electric bike users benefit from this type of physical activity. In seven European cities, electric bike users had 10% higher weekly energy expenditure than other cyclists. [20] People switching to e-bike from either private cars or public transport expend more energy as physical activity increases, gaining between 550 and 880 Metabolic Equivalent Task minutes per week. [20] Electric bikes may act as a cycling enabler for women. [21]

Environment

An environmental benefit of active mobility is reducing greenhouse gas emissions to slow global warming. [22] Every year, a typical car emits 4.6 metric tons of carbon dioxide. [23] As a greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere speeds up the effects of climate change. [24] As automobile use increases greenhouse gas emissions, the rates in which our Earth is reaching climate tipping point thresholds are escalating. [24] Active mobility lowers daily greenhouse gas emissions, slowing these tipping points. [25] For example, in New Zealand, active mobility has been found to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide by 1% annually. [25] In a study of 7 European cities, it was found that individual changes in active travel come with significant lifecycle carbon emissions benefits, even in European urban contexts with already high walking and cycling shares. [26] An increase in cycling or walking consistently and independently decreased mobility-related lifecycle CO
2 emissions. An average person cycling 1 trip/day more and driving 1 trip/day less for 200 days a year would decrease mobility-related lifecycle CO
2 emissions by about 0.5 tonnes over a year. [27]

Air and noise pollution are negative effects of vehicular transport. Air pollution negatively affects human health and the environment. [28] Air pollution can cause acid rain, eutrophication, haze, wildlife deaths, thinning of Earth’s ozone layer, crop damage, and global climate change. [28] Noise pollution disrupts ecosystems and wildlife. [29] Active mobility reduces air and noise pollution by substituting for cars that produce greenhouse gases and noise, benefiting the environment and urban ecosystems. [17]

Government responses

Road sign in Victoria, Australia Victoria W6-V9-2.svg
Road sign in Victoria, Australia

Active mobility has appealed to policymakers because of its beneficial contributions to physical health and reductions of air pollution, [30] leading to legislative efforts to make cycling and walking safer and more attractive for commuting and personal errands. [31] These measures include infrastructure changes to accommodate more cyclists and pedestrians on roads, regulations to limit car traffic, [30] and education and training to improve the coordination between motor vehicles and individuals using active mobility. [32] Infrastructure developments that have been correlated with increased active mobility are wider sidewalks, street lighting, flat terrain, and urban greenery, [33] particularly with access to parks. [34] Cycling in particular requires more infrastructure development to achieve a noticeable increase in use, including:

Several researchers have also emphasized that the largest contribution to active mobility comes from easy access to local amenities such as restaurants, shops, and theaters, which can be promoted by local governments. [35] [36] A significant concern about increased active mobility is a corresponding increase in injuries and deaths, especially between pedestrians or cyclists and motor vehicles. [37] Active mobility may often be more time-consuming than commuting by vehicle, and the effects of distance, geographic features such as hills, and climate may make outdoor exertion uncomfortable or impractical. [38] Another criticism of active transportation policy contends that converting traffic lanes for bicycle use makes travel more difficult for commuters who must a motor vehicle. [39]

Active mobility by country

European Union

Carfree Juist, Germany Juist, Carl-Stegmann-Strasse - panoramio.jpg
Carfree Juist, Germany

The European Union’s Mobility and Transport organization includes the promotion of walking and cycling among its strategies to enable more sustainable transportation in Europe. [40] The European Union has also adopted a Vision Zero goal to eliminate all traffic deaths, seeking to mitigate the number of incidents between pedestrians and cyclists and motor vehicles, as these commonly result in serious injury or death. [41] Separate from the European Union, several European cities and regions founded an organization, Polis, in 1989 to coordinate efforts between local governments and the European Union to improve the efficiency of transportation. [42] This includes the facilitation of active mobility, which Polis states provides benefits to the environment and to the public’s physical health and asserts that these improvements contribute to the economy as well. [43] Polis recommends that policy decisions should account for benefits from reduced health and environmental costs from active mobility, increased city accessibility from reduced congestion and pollution, and consider regulations on vehicle design to address concerns of safety and convenience. [44] Polis encourages the development of Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) to guide mobility projects in cities of all sizes. [45]

Netherlands

Cycling fatalities in the Netherlands from 2007 to 2016. Cycling Fatalities in the Netherlands Graph.png
Cycling fatalities in the Netherlands from 2007 to 2016.

Active mobility is used widely in the Netherlands, comprising more than 40% of commuting in urban areas. [32] The flat topography and temperate climate of the Netherlands benefits active mobility, which has been supported by government policy for decades, [38] including 35,000 kilometers of dedicated cycling paths. [46] As a result, the Dutch government estimates that there are about 1.3 bikes per person in the Netherlands. [46] A consequence of this is that about 20% of Dutch road accident fatalities are cyclists, with more than 100 cyclists perishing each year. [47] This rate and number are higher than most other European countries, reflecting the high use of active mobility in the Netherlands. [47] However, policy efforts by the Ministry of Industry and Water Management [48] may have contributed to a declining mortality rate, which fell more than 30% from 2007 to 2016. [47]

Singapore

The Land Transport Authority (LTA) of Singapore pursues a stated goal to supplement mechanized transportation methods with "walk and cycle options". [49]  Following a test plan implemented in the neighborhood of Tampines, [50] the Minister of Transport presented a National Cycling Plan in 2013 to provide paths to integrate cycling with Singapore's extensive Mass Rapid Transit system. [51] This includes 190 kilometers of paths, thousands of bicycle parking racks, signage, and cyclist education. These efforts have been criticized, however, as being limited in scope, especially for limiting the expansion of cycling access to off-road connections, such as through the Park Connectors Network, rather than more infrastructure for commuting in cities. [50]

United Kingdom

The Association of Directors of Public Health in the United Kingdom, joined by over one hundred signatory organizations including Sustrans and the Royal College of Physicians on a position paper on active travel, set out a number of clear policy measures recommended for local planning and highway authorities, including:

England

The UK Government's plan for active travel in England was released in 2020 and is known as Gear Change. The plan aims to make England a 'great cycling nation'. The plan aims to create cycling and walking corridors, introduce more low-traffic neighbourhoods and school streets, aims to set high standards for cycling infrastructure. The plan accompanies £2 billion in additional funding over the following five years for cycling and walking announced in May 2020. The plan also introduced a new body and inspectorate known as Active Travel England. [53]

Scotland

Scottish Government policy aims to increase the use of active travel modes in Scotland for shorter journeys and to make active mobility safer and inclusive. The National Walking Strategy was published in 2017 and the Cycling Action Plan for Scotland (CAPS) was last updated in 2017. [54]

The active travel advocacy group Cycling UK criticised the Scottish Government for not increasing funding for active travel. The Scottish budget allocates £100 million for cycling and walking, which is 3.3% of the transport budget or the total cost of three miles of the A9 dualling scheme. [55] Within the public sector in Scotland the transport sector has the lowest percentage of women in senior posts. Only 6.25% of heads of transport bodies are women. [56]

Wales

Other steps include the Active Travel (Wales) Act 2013, which passed in 2013. The act requires local authorities to continuously improve facilities and routes for pedestrians and cyclists and to prepare maps identifying current and potential future routes for their use. It also requires road improvement and development projects to consider the needs of pedestrians and cyclists at the design stage. [57]

United States

Residents of the United States use active mobility as a mode of transportation less often than residents of other countries. [58] The far greater mortality rates of pedestrians and cyclists in U.S. cities has been cited as a contributing factor to this trend. [58] Efforts to increase use of active mobility have been undertaken at the federal levels by the U.S. Department of Transportation, which pursues the development of active commuting through its Livability Initiative. [59] The Livability Initiative includes billions of dollars of funding through several grant programs, including the Better Utilizing Investments to Leverage Development (BUILD), Infrastructure for Rebuilding America (INFRA), and the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA), to facilitate the construction of infrastructure supportive of increased pedestrian and bicycle traffic. [60] Funding increases for these programs, such as the Fixing America’s Surface Transportation (FAST) act of 2015, have garnered bipartisan support. [61] Multiple cities in the United States, including Seattle, Chicago, Minneapolis, Sacramento, and Houston, have implemented their own policies to encourage the active mobility for commuting to work and to school. [62] More extensive efforts involve detailed  active transportation programs (ATPs), such as those implemented in California, [63] Portland, Oregon, [64] Fort Worth, Texas, [65] and San Diego County. [66] However, these efforts have struggled to promote measurable changes in the percentage of commuters using active transportation to work: in the United States Census Bureau’s American Community Survey, 3.4% of Americans biked or walked to work in 2013, and only 3.1% did so in 2018. [67]

Bike and pedestrian lanes in Roger Williams Park. Bike and pedestrian lanes in Roger Williams Park.jpg
Bike and pedestrian lanes in Roger Williams Park.
Active Commuting in the United States [67]
YearBikingWalkingTotal Active Commuting
20130.614%2.792%3.405%
20140.631%2.754%3.385%
20150.595%2.768%3.362%
20160.573%2.706%3.279%
20170.556%2.639%3.195%
20180.526%2.574%3.100%

Disabled people

People with disabilities often face more issues with active transport than those without disabilities.[ citation needed ]

Some people have medical barriers to active travel. There are some instances where it is not possible for a person to walk or cycle, and, even if the physical, societal and financial barriers were removed, some would still need access to a motor vehicle. [68]

An immediate barrier for disabled people walking on roads is the inaccessibility of streetspace, for example: [68]

For those who wish to cycle, barriers can include narrow cycle lanes, infrastructure that requires a cyclist to dismount, physical access barriers and a lack of suitable cycle parking facilities. [68]

Gender differences

In some cities and countries women lead the way when it comes to walking. 54% of journeys completed wholly on foot in London are made by women. [69]

According to research into gender differences in active travel across a range of international cities, women are more likely than men to walk and more likely to use public transport. [70] The gender differences in active travel metrics are age dependent. Women’s and men’s perception of danger and safety offer differential travel experience. [71] Research highlights the importance of a gendered approach towards healthy living and active transport policy making with considerations for reducing road traffic danger and male violence. [72]

Men are more likely to have access to private cars than women. [73] Design that benefits cars over other modes of transport disproportionately benefits men. [74] Men and women tend to have different patterns of journeys. [56] Women are more likely to be trip chaining, and trip chaining encourages car use. [75] [76] Women are also more likely to be 'encumbered' by carrying children, shopping or accompanied by elderly companions [69] In the UK fewer women cycle than men [77] [78] and road safety is cited as a concern relating to cycling [79] and to walking. [80] [81] A Sustrans report in the UK found a lack of evidence that women participate in creating transport policy and planning. [56]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cycling</span> Riding a bicycle

Cycling, also known as bicycling or biking, is the activity of riding a bicycle or other type of cycle. It encompasses the use of human-powered vehicles such as balance bikes, unicycles, tricycles, and quadricycles. Cycling is practised around the world for purposes including transport, recreation, exercise, and competitive sport.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bicycle-friendly</span> Urban planning prioritising cycling

Bicycle-friendly policies and practices help some people feel more comfortable about traveling by bicycle with other traffic. The level of bicycle-friendliness of an environment can be influenced by many factors including town planning and cycling infrastructure decisions. A stigma towards people who ride bicycles and fear of cycling is a social construct that needs to be fully understood when promoting a bicycle friendly culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Commuting</span> Periodically recurring travel between ones place of residence and place of work, or study

Commuting is periodically recurring travel between one's place of residence and place of work or study, where the traveler, referred to as a commuter, leaves the boundary of their home community. Regarding occupation, it is also colloquially called the journey to work. By extension, it can sometimes be any regular or often repeated travel between locations, even when not work-related. The modes of travel, time taken and distance traveled in commuting varies widely across the globe. Most people in least-developed countries continue to walk to work. The cheapest method of commuting after walking is usually by bicycle, so this is common in low-income countries but is also increasingly practised by people in wealthier countries for environmental and health reasons. In middle-income countries, motorcycle commuting is very common.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Utility cycling</span> Bicycling as transportation

Utility cycling encompasses any cycling done simply as a means of transport rather than as a sport or leisure activity. It is the original and most common type of cycling in the world. Cycling mobility is one of the various types of private transport and a major part of individual mobility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Safety in numbers</span> Hypothesis

Safety in numbers is the hypothesis that, by being part of a large physical group or mass, an individual is less likely to be the victim of a mishap, accident, attack, or other bad event. Some related theories also argue that mass behaviour can reduce accident risks, such as in traffic safety – in this case, the safety effect creates an actual reduction of danger, rather than just a redistribution over a larger group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable transport</span> Sustainable transport in the senses of social, environmental and climate impacts

Sustainable transport refers to ways of transportation that are sustainable in terms of their social and environmental impacts. Components for evaluating sustainability include the particular vehicles used for road, water or air transport; the source of energy; and the infrastructure used to accommodate the transport. Transport operations and logistics as well as transit-oriented development are also involved in evaluation. Transportation sustainability is largely being measured by transportation system effectiveness and efficiency as well as the environmental and climate impacts of the system. Transport systems have significant impacts on the environment, accounting for between 20% and 25% of world energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. The majority of the emissions, almost 97%, came from direct burning of fossil fuels. In 2019, about 95% of the fuel came from fossil sources. The main source of greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union is transportation. In 2019 it contributes to about 31% of global emissions and 24% of emissions in the EU. In addition, up to the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions have only increased in this one sector. Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are increasing at a faster rate than any other energy using sector. Road transport is also a major contributor to local air pollution and smog.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Living street</span> Traffic calming in spaces shared between road users

A living street is a street designed with the interests of pedestrians and cyclists in mind by providing enriching and experiential spaces. Living streets also act as social spaces, allowing children to play and encouraging social interactions on a human scale, safely and legally. Living streets consider all pedestrians granting equal access to elders and those who are disabled. These roads are still available for use by motor vehicles; however, their design aims to reduce both the speed and dominance of motorized transport. The reduction of motor vehicle dominance creates more opportunities for public transportation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bike lane</span> Road traffic lane for cyclists

Bike lanes (US) or cycle lanes (UK) are types of bikeways (cycleways) with lanes on the roadway for cyclists only. In the United Kingdom, an on-road cycle-lane can be firmly restricted to cycles or advisory. In the United States, a designated bicycle lane or class II bikeway (Caltrans) is always marked by a solid white stripe on the pavement and is for 'preferential use' by bicyclists. There is also a class III bicycle route, which has roadside signs suggesting a route for cyclists, and urging sharing the road. A class IV separated bike way (Caltrans) is a bike lane that is physically separate from motor traffic and restricted to bicyclists only.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bicycle commuting</span> Use of a bicycle to travel

Bicycle commuting is the use of a bicycle to travel from home to a place of work or study — in contrast to the use of a bicycle for sport, recreation or touring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carfree city</span> Urban area absent of motor vehicles

A carfree city is an urban area absent of motor vehicles. Carfree cities rely on public transport, walking, and cycling for travel as opposed to motor vehicles. Districts where motor vehicles are prohibited are referred to as carfree zones. Carfree city models have gained traction in the second half of the 20th century due to issues with congestion and infrastructure, and proposed environmental and quality of life benefits. Many cities in Asia, Europe, and Africa have carfree areas due to the cities being created before the invention of motor vehicles, while many developing cities in Asia are using the carfree model to modernize their infrastructure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transportation demand management</span> Policies to reduce transportation demands

Transportation demand management or travel demand management (TDM) is the application of strategies and policies to increase the efficiency of transportation systems, that reduce travel demand, or to redistribute this demand in space or in time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walking bus</span> Chaperoned student group on foot

A walking bus is a form of student transport for young schoolchildren who, chaperoned typically by two adults, walk. The crocodile may walk to school along a set route, with some similarities to a school bus route, with designated "bus stops" and "pick up times" at which they pick up and "drop off" children. In Britain a group of schoolchildren walking together in a long line of pairs on an activity without stops or pickups, escorted by teachers, has been referred to as a crocodile since at least 1870.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Complete streets</span> Transportation policy and design approach

Complete streets is a transportation policy and design approach that requires streets to be planned, designed, operated and maintained to enable safe, convenient and comfortable travel and access for users of all ages and abilities regardless of their mode of transportation. Complete Streets allow for safe travel by those walking, cycling, driving automobiles, riding public transportation, or delivering goods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walkability</span> How accessible a space is to walking

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Urban computing is an interdisciplinary field which pertains to the study and application of computing technology in urban areas. This involves the application of wireless networks, sensors, computational power, and data to improve the quality of densely populated areas. Urban computing is the technological framework for smart cities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental effects of transport</span>

The environmental effects of transport are significant because transport is a major user of energy, and burns most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide. Within the transport sector, road transport is the largest contributor to global warming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cycling in the United States</span> American sport and mode of transport

Cycling in the United States is a minor sport in the country. It is also a mode of transport, particularly in urban areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport divide</span> Unequal access to transport

Transport divide refers to unequal access to transportation. It can result in the social exclusion of disadvantaged groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cycling in Turkey</span>

Cycling in Turkey is held back by poor infrastructure. It is sometimes done for health reasons, and infrastructure is being improved. The World Health Organization has called for transport in Turkey to include more active transport such as cycling.

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