Deforestation in British Columbia

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Evan's Peak,British Columbia Evans Peak cropped.JPG
Evan's Peak,British Columbia

Deforestation in British Columbia has resulted in a net loss of 1.06 million hectares (2.6 million acres) of tree cover between the years 2000 and 2020. [1] More traditional losses have been exacerbated by increased threats from climate change driven fires, increased human activity, and invasive species. The introduction of sustainable forestry efforts such as the Zero Net Deforestation Act seeks to reduce the rate of forest cover loss. In British Columbia, forests cover over 55 million hectares, which is 57.9% of British Columbia's 95 million hectares of land. [2] The forests are mainly composed (over 80%) of coniferous trees, such as pines, spruces and firs. [3]

Contents

Environmental Issues

Deforestation has negative impacts on British Columbia's environment and diversity even though it is necessary for population expansion and benefits for the Canadian economy.

Carbon emissions and greenhouse gases

Carbon emissions from deforestation is an important issue to look at with the increasing problem of global warming. Currently, about 4% of B.C.′s total green house gas (GHG) yearly emissions are from deforestation, which is quite a low percentage compared to B.C.'s total GHG emissions, and works out to be about 6,200 hectares of forest land is converted to non-forest use per year. [4] The B.C. forest sector has had a large reduction in the amount of GHG from use of fossil fuels used in deforestation, going down from 4 million tons of carbon emissions in 1990 to 1.8 million tons in 2006. [5] The reduction in deforestation B.C. over the years has been favorable to the reduction in carbon emissions, as forests clean the air by collecting both carbon and pollutants.

Species diversity

Species diversity is an important ecological part of B.C.'s forests and the act of deforestation can reduce the diversity by taking away crucial environments for both the plant and animal species to live in. There are currently 116 species, which is approximately 10% of species in B.C., that are on the B.C. Conservation Data Centre's Red List which are endangered species associated with the forest. [6] Deforestation events such as agriculture, introduction of exotic species and timber production threaten the species. After deforestation events, the replanting of trees also had a decrease in diversity of the number of tree species per area due to dominated by single tree species. [7] Currently, changes have been made in replanting strategies by planting different species in one area, which has reduced the problem of dominating species. [8]

Soil composition

The soil composition is affected by different deforestation processes of removing trees as it changes the soil productivity through compaction or removal. The soil holds more than just the nutrients and plants in the forests, it consists of inorganic material, organic matter, air, water, and many micro and macro-organisms. [9] The act of deforestation requires the forest sector to build roads, which decrease the productive land base, to be able to access the trees which went down from 4.6% of the area harvest in the mid-1990s to 3.5% in 2008. [10] New stricter enforcement of laws regarding soil disturbance has dramatically reduced the degree of soil disturbances to the harvested area from 43 enforcement actions in 1995 to only 3 in 2008. [11] Soil conservation is an important environmental issue to consider as it maintains water quality, ecosystem productivity, and future economic benefits. [9]

Water

Water is an essential part to the ecosystem of forests including the plants and animal species survival, stream, rivers and lakes habitats and also human activities. The act of deforestation can affect the quality of water, quantity of water as well as the aquatic ecosystems located in the forests. [12] When deforestation takes place by the forest sector, the water quality can be affected by sedimentation, pollution and changes in water levels. [12] When roads are put in to cross streams and rivers, 94% of the roads crossings have low to moderate potential to deliver sediment to a stream, [5] When the deforestation takes place near a stream, riparian techniques are used to conserve the tree density around the stream to protect and provide many benefits to the water quality, quantity and stability of the aquatic ecosystem. [12] With 87% of the riparian area within the deforested area being in properly functioning conditions, the forest sector has high conservation efforts to protect the water within forest. [5] The passage of fish species to upstream and downstream habitats can be an essential part of survival and can be affected by deforestation practices, especially the building of roads by forest sector. [13] With only 42% of the road stream crossings having a low effect on the passage of fish species, the remainder of crossings have a high to moderate risk of limiting fish passage. [13] With an increase in stream crossings by roads from 421,830 in 2000 to 488,674 in 2005, a strategic plan is in process to address the fish passage concern. [14]

Zero Net Deforestation Act

In 2010 the province of British Columbia introduced a new piece of legislature called the Zero Net Deforestation Act, which plans to reduce green house gas emission as well as protect B.C.'s forests. [15] The plan states that an area that is deforested and permanently cleared, an equal amount of trees will be planted for carbon storage and therefore will create a "net zero" effect on deforestation. [15] With the province of British Columbia's target of a 33% decrease in green house emissions by 2020, this act will play a key role in the goal as the great density of forests in B.C. allow for greater absorption and storage of carbon. [15]

Forestry Management in British Columbia

The province British Columbia in Canada is known for its high biodiversity with over 185 wildlife vertebrate, 171 bird species, and a variety of conifer and deciduous trees. [16] In forestry management, it is important to recognize the cumulative effects of habitat and environmental changes that have the potential to threaten BC forests. Looking at sustainability in forest management requires comparing the ecological impacts of timber harvesting and of natural disturbances, such as fire, insects and disease. [17]

Threats to British Columbia Forests

Fire

In the late 19th century and early 20th century, forest fires were viewed in an anthropocentric manner as a major threat to public safety and a waste of timber that could be otherwise harvested for human use. [18] While forest fires can have a significant negative effect on mature conifer stands, [16] fire plays a key ecological role in Canadian boreal forest ecosystems. [18] In addition to maintaining forest productivity, fire initiates and concludes vegetation succession, influences the age structure and species composition, keeps biodiversity high, modifies the distribution of insects and disease, influences nutrient cycling, maintains diversity, prevents soil erosion, and stabilizes ecosystems. [17] [18] The relationship between fire and stand (tree) development is complex and requires careful consideration.

Human Activity

Clear cut in the Gordon River Valley near Port Renfrew, BC. Gordon River Clearcut.jpg
Clear cut in the Gordon River Valley near Port Renfrew, BC.

British Columbia is one of the world's largest exporters of wood fibre. [19] In 2015 it was reported that British Columbia forestry supports 145,800 jobs and 7000 businesses, with an annual revenue of 15.7 billion dollars. [19] Nationally, Canada's deforestation can be attributed to urban development of transportation corridors and recreation (19%), hydroelectric development (10%), the forestry sector (10%), and other natural resource extraction industries (8%). [20] British Columbia enforces a cap on the allowable annual cut by setting the maximum amount of timber allowed to be harvested by each company. [19] In the province, 8.1% of British Columbia is protected from harvesting, these are known as protected areas. [19]

Invasive Species

Invasive species are those that are not native to a region, and have the ability to displace local species and disrupt natural ecological processes. [16] The mountain pine beetle has a significant negative effect on mature conifer stands. [16] The occurrence of pine beetle outbreaks are influenced by warmer temperatures from mild winters which reduce the mortality of beetle larvae during the winter. [16] From 1995 - 2005, British Columbia experienced a decline in the health of conifer trees and this was found to be correlated with the increase in the proportion of beetle-attacked conifers. [16] In addition to the mountain pine beetle, other destructive invasive species include bark beetles, douglas fir beetles, spruce beetles, spruce leader weevil, and western spruce budworm. [21] Climate change impacts the distribution, life cycles, habitats, and mortality rates of these invasive insects. [22] With a warming climate, there is a greater accumulation of the larvae of invasive species which increases the feeding and predation stresses on tree hosts. [21] The impact from invasive species in British Columbia are both ecological and economic, due to the disruption of the timber supply available for harvest. [21] [22]

Managing British Columbia Forest Threats

Management of Fire

Natural wildfire provides many benefits to forest ecosystems such as forest succession, species longevity, stocking, biodiversity, pest control, and soil fertility. [17] Human activity interrupts the natural impact of wildfires making them stronger and more detrimental to the forests. [17] To mitigate the impacts of fire on the landscape, management techniques should reduce potential for fire-starters and increase the capacity for fire suppression. [18] A common management method is called prescribed burning. Prescribed burning is done by intentionally setting fires in specific areas to promote the biodiversity and health of forests, while restricting the ability of it to have severe short-term socioeconomic impacts. [18] In order to reduce the risk to resources, infrastructure, and public health, cut-block boundaries such as roads or skid trails are used as barriers. [18]

Management of Human Activity

To address the human impacts on forests in British Columbia, management needs to plan for the long term (100–200 years in the future). [23] The complexity of climate change and ecological systems means that management methods should extend to ecosystems overall, rather than only stands on trees. [23] [24] Management methods should also be multi-objective in practice in order to assess forest attributes such as biodiversity, timber production, carbon storage and recreation purposes. [24]

A comprehensive management technique is called the Decision Support System (DSS). [24] DSS outlines the complexity of actions with regards to forestry and addresses the consequences of different management techniques over a range of ecological, economic, and social indicators. [24] This is done by highlighting potential conflicts, using a science-based framework, conveying knowledge about long-term dynamics of forest ecosystems, and providing guidance by projecting trends within indicators. [24] Simulation models are useful to determine what the best method is for harvesting trees. [17] These models can be used to maintain specific or at-risk ecosystem types by using scientific knowledge. [17]

A provincial management method implemented by British Columbia is the Forest Practices Code. This code must be followed by all forestry companies and there are repercussions if rules of the code are broken. Penalties include fines, reduction of allowable size of clearcuts or the removal of a company's ‘right to cut’. [25]

A common resource management method used in many fields is the precautionary principle. The precautionary principle states that when the impacts of an action are unknown, the action should not be executed. [26] Within this principle is the concept of sustainable development of natural resources which requires that the stock of capital of a product be maintained, and only harvesting what is above the base-stock. [26]

Landscape management is a technique for commercial forestry companies to implement by allowing for longer rotations between cutting. [27] Depending on the characteristics of a region (i.e. soil productivity, topography, proximity to mills), certain areas can be managed specifically for intensive wood production, while leaving other areas untouched for regeneration. [27] This technique requires the management of the entire forest, rather than an isolated section in order to take into account the social, environmental, and economic needs of a region [27]

A stand of trees affected by Mountain Pine Beetles in Massachusetts, USA Mountain Pine Beetle (3762887105).jpg
A stand of trees affected by Mountain Pine Beetles in Massachusetts, USA

Management of Invasive Species

Management for invasive species requires monitoring, modelling, and assistance in promoting migration and genetic diversity. [21] In addition to this, reducing the amount of timber harvested will conserve the present stand of trees. [21] Monitoring insect and disease occurrences over long periods of time gives a better understanding of the effects of climate change and how forests respond to it. [21] The information from monitoring can be used to model and forecast the range of potential future changes with indicators such as volume harvested, gross profit, ecosystem carbon storage, age-class distribution and patch-size distribution. [21] [24] The data from monitoring and modelling can be used to determine which tree species to breed or reintroduce in an area in order to increase tree stand resilience and reduce susceptibility to invasive species. [21]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation</span> Conversion of forest to non-forest for human use

Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forest</span> Dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area

A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use." Using this definition, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 found that forests covered 4.06 billion hectares, or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forestry</span> Science and craft of managing woodlands

Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reforestation</span> Land regeneration method (replacement of trees)

Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands (forestation) that have been depleted, usually through deforestation but also after clearcutting. Two important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood or for climate change mitigation purposes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Logging</span> Process of cutting, processing, and moving trees

Logging is the process of cutting, processing, and moving trees to a location for transport. It may include skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used narrowly to describe the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard. In common usage, however, the term may cover a range of forestry or silviculture activities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Old-growth forest</span> Type of forest

An old-growth forest, sometimes synonymous with primary forest, virgin forest, late seral forest, primeval forest, first-growth forest, or mature forest, is a forest that has attained great age without significant disturbance, and thereby exhibits unique ecological features, and might be classified as a climax community. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines primary forests as naturally regenerated forests of native tree species where there are no clearly visible indications of human activity and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed. Barely one-third of the world's forests are primary forests. Old-growth features include diverse tree-related structures that provide diverse wildlife habitats that increases the biodiversity of the forested ecosystem. Virgin or first-growth forests are old-growth forests that have never been logged. The concept of diverse tree structure includes multi-layered canopies and canopy gaps, greatly varying tree heights and diameters, and diverse tree species and classes and sizes of woody debris.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clearcutting</span> Forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down

Clearcutting, clearfelling or clearcut logging is a forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down. Along with shelterwood and seed tree harvests, it is used by foresters to create certain types of forest ecosystems and to promote select species that require an abundance of sunlight or grow in large, even-age stands. Logging companies and forest-worker unions in some countries support the practice for scientific, safety and economic reasons, while detractors consider it a form of deforestation that destroys natural habitats and contributes to climate change. Environmentalists, traditional owners, local residents and others have regularly campaigned against clearcutting, including through the use of blockades and nonviolent direct action.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secondary forest</span> Forest or woodland area which has re-grown after a timber harvest

A secondary forest is a forest or woodland area which has regenerated through largely natural processes after human-caused disturbances, such as timber harvest or agriculture clearing, or equivalently disruptive natural phenomena. It is distinguished from an old-growth forest, which has not recently undergone such disruption, and complex early seral forest, as well as third-growth forests that result from harvest in second growth forests. Secondary forest regrowing after timber harvest differs from forest regrowing after natural disturbances such as fire, insect infestation, or windthrow because the dead trees remain to provide nutrients, structure, and water retention after natural disturbances. Secondary forests are notably different from primary forests in their composition and biodiversity; however, they may still be helpful in providing habitat for native species, preserving watersheds, and restoring connectivity between ecosystems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mountain pine beetle</span> Species of beetle

The mountain pine beetle is a species of bark beetle native to the forests of western North America from Mexico to central British Columbia. It has a hard black exoskeleton, and measures approximately 5 millimetres, about the size of a grain of rice.

Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF), also referred to as Forestry and other land use (FOLU) or Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU), is defined as a "greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use such as settlements and commercial uses, land-use change, and forestry activities."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable forest management</span> Management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development

Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management has to keep the balance between three main pillars: ecological, economic and socio-cultural. The goal of sustainable forestry is to allow for a balance to be found between making use of trees and also maintaining natural patterns of disturbance and regeneration. The forestry industry mitigates climate change by boosting carbon storage in growing trees and soils and improving the sustainable supply of renewable raw materials via sustainable forest management.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Brazil</span> Conversion of forest to non-forest for human use in Brazil

Brazil once had the highest deforestation rate in the world and in 2005 still had the largest area of forest removed annually. Since 1970, over 700,000 square kilometres (270,000 sq mi) of the Amazon rainforest have been destroyed. In 2001, the Amazon was approximately 5,400,000 square kilometres (2,100,000 sq mi), which is only 87% of the Amazon's original size. According to official data, about 729,000 km² have already been deforested in the Amazon biome, which corresponds to 17% of the total. 300,000 km² have been deforested in the last 20 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Nigeria</span> Lack of forestation in Nigeria

Deforestation in Nigeria refers to the extensive and rapid clearing of forests within the borders of Nigeria. This environmental issue has significant impacts on both local and global scales.

When logging began in British Columbia, Canada, in the late 19th century, the overriding concern was to harvest timber in the most economical fashion. Reforestation, aesthetics and protection of fish and wildlife habitat were not issues of great concern.

Akure Forest Reserve is a protected area in southwest Nigeria, covering 66 km2 (25 sq mi). The Akure Forest Reserve, established in 1948 and spanning approximately 32 hectares, was created with the primary aim of safeguarding the genetic diversity of the forest ecosystem.

Forest conservation is the practice of planning and maintaining forested areas for the benefit and sustainability of future generations. Forest conservation involves the upkeep of the natural resources within a forest that are beneficial for both humans and the ecosystem. Forests provide wildlife with a suitable habitat for living which allows the ecosystem to be biodiverse and benefit other natural processes. Forests also filter groundwater and prevent runoff keeping water safe for human consumption. There are many types of forests to consider and various techniques to preserve them. Of the types of forests in the United States, they each face specific threats. But, there are various techniques to implement that will protect and preserve them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forestry in Canada</span>

The Canadian forestry industry is a major contributor to the Canadian economy. With 39% of Canada's land acreage covered by forests, the country contains 9% of the world's forested land. The forests are made up primarily of spruce, poplar and pine. The Canadian forestry industry is composed of three main sectors: solid wood manufacturing, pulp and paper and logging. Forests, as well as forestry are managed by The Department of Natural Resources Canada and the Canadian Forest Service, in cooperation with several organizations which represent government groups, officials, policy experts, and numerous other stakeholders. Extensive deforestation by European settlers during the 18th and 19th centuries has been halted by more modern policies. Today, less than 1% of Canada's forests are affected by logging each year. Canada is the 2nd largest exporter of wood products, and produces 12.3% of the global market share. Economic concerns related to forestry include greenhouse gas emissions, biotechnology, biological diversity, and infestation by pests such as the mountain pine beetle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation and climate change</span> Relationship between deforestation and global warming

Deforestation is a primary contributor to climate change, and climate change affects forests. Land use changes, especially in the form of deforestation, are the second largest anthropogenic source of atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions, after fossil fuel combustion. Greenhouse gases are emitted during combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon. Global models and national greenhouse gas inventories give similar results for deforestation emissions. As of 2019, deforestation is responsible for about 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation are accelerating. Growing forests are a carbon sink with additional potential to mitigate the effects of climate change. Some of the effects of climate change, such as more wildfires, insect outbreaks, invasive species, and storms are factors that increase deforestation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon farming</span> Agricultural methods that capture carbon

Carbon farming is a name for a variety of agricultural methods aimed at sequestering atmospheric carbon into the soil and in crop roots, wood and leaves. The aim of carbon farming is to increase the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material with the goal of creating a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. Increasing a soil's organic matter content can aid plant growth, increase total carbon content, improve soil water retention capacity and reduce fertilizer use. Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture.

Proforestation is the practice of protecting existing natural forests to foster continuous growth, carbon accumulation, and structural complexity. It is recognized as an important forest based strategy for addressing the global crises in climate and biodiversity. Forest restoration can be a strategy for climate change mitigation. Proforestation complements other forest-based solutions like afforestation, reforestation and improved forest management.

References

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  2. ↑ "The State of British Columbia's Forests - Third Edition (2010)" (PDF). p. 36. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
  3. ↑ "The State of British Columbia's Forests - Third Edition (2010)" (PDF). p. 39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
  4. ↑ "The State of British Columbia's Forests - Third Edition (2010)" (PDF). p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
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  8. ↑ "The State of British Columbia's Forests - Third Edition (2010)" (PDF). p. 71. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
  9. 1 2 "The State of British Columbia's Forests - Third Edition (2010)" (PDF). p. 92. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
  10. ↑ "The State of British Columbia's Forests - Third Edition (2010)" (PDF). p. 94. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
  11. ↑ "The State of British Columbia's Forests - Third Edition (2010)" (PDF). p. 95. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
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  13. 1 2 "The State of British Columbia's Forests - Third Edition (2010)" (PDF). p. 102. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
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