Forests in Turkey

Last updated

Autumn in Yedigoller National Park TR Yedigoller asv2021-10 img02.jpg
Autumn in Yedigöller National Park

Forests cover almost a third of Turkey. They are almost all state-owned, and vary from temperate rainforest in the north-east to maquis in the south and west. Pine, fir, oak and beech are common.

Contents

After the glaciers retreated over ten thousand years ago, woods grew to cover most of the land which is now Turkey; however over thousands of years, many of the trees have been cut down. The country is slowly reforesting, which is beneficial for its wildlife and to absorb carbon to help limit climate change.

As of the mid-2020s, the main product of Turkey's forests is wood, and they are also important for recreation. Almost half the forest is badly degraded, and the woodlands are threatened by drought, wildfire, mining, and pests and diseases.

Definition and cover

In 2023, forests covered about 30% of the country, [1] : 9  almost the global average. Legally in Turkey, a piece of woodland of less than three hectares (ha) cannot be labelled "forest". [2] : 3  However, the national greenhouse gas inventory uses the Food and Agriculture Organization definition: forests must cover 1 ha or more and be at least 5m high. There are forest–subcategories of coniferous, deciduous, mixed, and 'other forested land' which has a crown closure between 1 and 10 percent. [3] : 299, 301  Forests with a crown closure of over 10% are classed as productive. [3] : 292  Trees grown for crops in plantations (such as Turkey's hazelnuts) are not classified as forests. [3] : 301  A 2024 study states that deforestation caused by other uses of forest land, such as mining, is not reflected in official statistics, [note 1] and that these uses cause forest degradation by fragmentation. [4] As of 2024, over 40% of the forests in Turkey were heavily degraded, [5] that is with less than 10% canopy cover. [6] : 64  In 2024 preparations for a new inventory continued, [7] and the Turkish National Forestry Program (2024–2043) is being prepared. [1] Since a change to the Forestry Law in 2018, the president has been able to reclassify land as not being forest. [8]

History

Painting in Bursa Forestry Museum showing Ataturk in woods Bursa Forestry Museum walk in the woods 7515.jpg
Painting in Bursa Forestry Museum showing Atatürk in woods
Transporting firewood in the early 21st century Hezingvanen Ehmediyi.jpg
Transporting firewood in the early 21st century

As Turkeyʼs glaciers almost all melted over ten thousand years ago, more oak (both deciduous, such as Turkey oak, and evergreen oak [9] ) grew in Central Anatolia. [10] Ten thousand years ago, Anatolia was mostly forested, [11] but forest cover before the formation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 is not well documented. [12] That period and prehistory can, however, be studied from tree rings, palynology (ancient particles such as pollen) and charcoal. [10] : 214 

Deforestation had increased sharply by 4000 BC, when wood was used for fuel and construction, for example in the settlement of Çatalhöyük. [10] : 214  In the Bronze Age, at around 3500 BC, humans began to significantly impact forests, for example by transporting wood from remote areas. [10] : 215  In the last two thousand years, especially in the last five hundred, much old growth forest has been cut down. Wooden ships were built, sometimes armies at war burnt forests to expose their enemies, and forests were cleared for agriculture. [10] : 214  As well as oak, there were juniper and Black pine (Pinus nigra) in these forests. [10] : 215  Turkish sweetgum (Liquidambar orientalis) was formerly widespread, but is now restricted to Southwest Anatolia. [13] Sources such as Theophrastus show that Ancient Mediterranean civilisations used wood as a fuel in houses, bakeries, bathhouses, and for metalwork. Cedar was used for temples, such as at Ephesus and Artemis. Chestnut and fir were used for charcoal. [10] : 217  The Ottoman navy built ships from timber from the coasts of the Black, Marmara and Aegean Seas. [10] : 214  Typically, armies used more wood than navies. [10] : 218 

As part of late Ottoman Empire reforms, a Forest Charter was issued in 1840 and the Forestry Directorate established, but according to one study it was too top-down and lacked public engagement. [14] After the formation of the republic in the 1920s, forestry and wood production were increased. [15] Forests were nationalised in 1938, [16] and the first large afforestation project in Turkey was done in 1939. [17]

Climate and forests

Marmaris forest fire in 2021 Marmaris forest fire.jpg
Marmaris forest fire in 2021
Burning coal, petrol, diesel and natural gas is putting far more carbon dioxide into the air than forests can take out. Greenhouse gas emission and absorption by Turkey.svg
Burning coal, petrol, diesel and natural gas is putting far more carbon dioxide into the air than forests can take out.

Although forests cover 23 million (almost 30%) [18] of Turkey's 78 million ha, 3 million ha have less than 10% crown cover, [3] : 301  and almost 10 million ha were degraded forest as of 2020. [19] : 63  Almost all forests are state owned and managed by the General Directorate of Forestry  [ tr ] (GDF) [17] of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; [20] the GDF plan to increase the amount of forests so as to remove more carbon from the atmosphere, and thus reabsorb more of Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions. [1] : 27  The GDF has 28 Regional Directorates of Forestry and 12 Forestry Research Institutes. [5] The Turkish constitution prohibits existing forests being transferred from state ownership, but state land is sometimes leased for private reforestation. [21] Reforestation by the private sector varies around five thousand ha a year. [1] : table 24  A 2020 study suggested that incentives for private afforestation should be increased. [21] There is a strategic plan for adaptation to climate change, [22] and Turkey is taking part in the Bonn Challenge. [23] The Turkish Industry and Business Association (TÜSİAD) recommends that afforestation should be better planned, carbon offsets and credits should be available, and carbon storage should be included in the Forest Law. [24] : 18 

Snow, and to a lesser extent rain, has decreased in Turkey. [24] : 18  TÜSİAD predicts a 90% reduction in habitats suitable for Black pine. [24] : 18  TÜSİAD reports that the massive forest fires that burned in 2021 and the shrinkage and drying of wetlands in Central Anatolia are the most obvious examples of aridification. The severity of drought and the area affected will increase with the effects of climate change; it is predicted that this will harm forests. In a climate that becomes more arid, efforts to increase carbon sink areas, such as afforestation and carbon sequestration, will become less efficient. [24] : 17  Drought is a threat both directly and indirectly by encouraging bark beetles. [25]

Distribution of forests

Giresun Province in the Black Sea Region, Turkey's most forested region Cliffs on both sides of Aksu stream, Giresun.jpg
Giresun Province in the Black Sea Region, Turkey's most forested region

Forests are mainly on the mountain ranges parallel to the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. [27] 4% of forests are coppice while the rest are high forests, [1] : 9  and there are six million ha of maquis, mostly in the south and west. [28] High rainfall in the eastern Black Sea Region sustains temperate rainforest. [29] 15% of forest area is in protected areas and the rest in managed forest. [6] : 63 

Eight ecoregions are officially defined, [3] : 291  all of which contain woodland: Euxine-Colchic deciduous forest; North Anatolian deciduous, coniferous and mixed; Mediterranean coastal zone deciduous and coniferous; Mediterranean Mountain zone; Aegean Inland deciduous and coniferous; Central Anatolian steppe; East Anatolian deciduous; and East Anatolian steppe. [30] Others include Balkan mixed forests and Caucasus mixed forests, [5] and the World Wide Fund for Nature lists 13 ecozones with woodland. Almost all the forests are in a temperate climate. [3] : 305 

A quarter of the Black Sea Region is forested, while other regions with over 10% forest include Marmara, Aegean, Mediterranean and East Anatolia. [26] Wildfires are increasing in some regions due to climate change in Turkey. [31] Because of droughts in 2008, 2020, and 2021, more forests burned in those years. [32]

Large areas of forest can be inventoried by satellite to hectare scale, [3] : 288  and small areas by lidar. [33] The national database, known as EVANIS, uses the national legal definition of forest and is very accurate for stands, but not as good at estimating how much carbon dioxide is absorbed by land use, land-use change, and forestry. [3] : 293 

The 2023 GDF activity report says "In addition, with the aim of planning and implementing forest areas in an organized and sustainable manner under the name of "Nation Forest" with a new recreation approach, Amasya National Forest, Izmir National Forest, Kastamonu National Forest, Kayseri National Forest, Mersin National Forest, Kocaeli National Forest, Batman National Forest. Forest, Manisa National Forest and Siirt National Forest facilities were realized." [1] : 43 

City forests and urban trees

In the early 21st century the government put more emphasis on urban trees [34] and has said that each major city should have a "city forest", [35] however these are not always controlled by city councils. [36]

Ecology

Turkish pine forestry in the Taurus Mountains Pinus brutia forestry Taurus Mts.jpg
Turkish pine forestry in the Taurus Mountains

Over half the volume of forest in Turkey is from the three species of Turkish pine, Black pine and Scots pine. [6] : 62  Brown bears sometimes leave the forest and enter urban areas - there is a fine for shooting them. [37]

Most forests are natural and semi-natural, with some being on mountains and having a lot of biodiversity, hosting most species of the flora and fauna of Turkey, [12] including flagship species such as Anatolian leopards. [38] [39] Deciduous forests can be found along the Black Sea. Species in various ecoregions in Turkey, namely Irano-Turanion, Mediterranean and Euro-Siberian, belong to about 800 woody taxa. As of 2020 the predominant species are oak (Quercus spp. 29%), Turkish pine (Pinus brutia 23%), black pine (Pinus nigra 18%), Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis 8%), European red pine (Pinus silvestris 6%), Juniper (Juniperus spp. 6%), Fir (Abies spp. 2%), Caucasian Spruce (Picea orientalis 2%), Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani 2%): other species include Stone pine (Pinus pinea), Mediterranean cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), Alder (Alnus spp.), sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus). [40] : 29 

Old-growth forest

There are old-growth forests containing over 500 taxa of trees and shrubs in the country. [10] Old-growth-forests are defined as "A primary or natural/near natural forest area containing tree species, whose existence can be traced back from hundreds of years to neolithic ages." Degraded ancient woodlands are sometimes very scattered. [10] : 219  According to a 2018 study by Turkish and British academics, both local support and national policy are needed to protect and rehabilitate them. [10] : 213  Heritage trees include the İnkaya Plane Tree, [41] and some are called natural monuments.

Benefits of forests

Foreigners visiting Belgrad Forest in Istanbul in the 1920s Spring In Belgrad Forest 1920s.jpg
Foreigners visiting Belgrad Forest in Istanbul in the 1920s
Picnic sites are often wooded Turkey road sign B-31.svg
Picnic sites are often wooded

Forests are the country's main carbon sink, especially in western Turkey where most are living biomass rather than soil organic carbon. [42] Forests are estimated to have absorbed 34 million tonnes of the 600 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey in 2021, less than in previous years due to both forest fires and a lot of wood being harvested. [3] : 287  The World Bank says that, "Increasing forest cover and improving forest health can help prevent soil erosion and landslides and reduce the impacts of floods." [43] In the mid-2020s the World Bank is supporting a project to make the forests more resilient against climate change in Turkey. [44] Eight million ha of forests are certified by the Forest Stewardship Council. [45] : 4 

Detail of an old house in Cengelkoy in Istanbul Detail of an old house in Cengelkoy.JPG
Detail of an old house in Çengelköy in Istanbul

Some forests, such as Belgrad Forest in Istanbul, are important for recreation and tourism. Some national parks and nature parks of Turkey contain forest, and there is an ecotourism plan to 2025. [46] There are forest schools [47] and preschooling. [48]

As of the early 2020s, there is no regulation encouraging more use of wood in buildings [49] instead of concrete and steel, which are carbon-intensive. [50] There is no standard life-cycle assessment of the sustainability of buildings. [51] There are no plans to reduce firewood burning, [50] although it emits soot and causes indoor air pollution, which is bad for health. [52]

Forest products

About half of forest in Turkey is directly part of the economy, with most of the rest functioning as watershed and erosion control. [5] 29 million m3 of standing trees, [note 2] 23 million m3 industrial wood, and five million steres of firewood were sold in 2023. [1] : 42 As of 2023, wood production is the main source of profit from forests. [45] 25 million m3 of wood was harvested in 2022, including 9 million m3 of timber, 9 million m3 of fibre-chip wood, 5 million m3 of paper wood, and 1 million m3 of industry wood. [45] : 13  Most wood is used to make board. [5] Lidar can estimate wood volume. [53] : 34 

70% of timber is used in construction, 20% is used in furniture and 10% is used in packaging and other industries. Timber consumption per person per year is about 0.08 m3. [54] Feebates for landowners have been suggested, especially for land at the agriculture/forest boundary: [CO2 rental price] × [carbon storage on their land in a baseline period ─ stored carbon in the current period]. [53] : 33–34 

Non-timber forest products include resin, acorns, mushrooms, truffles, and honey. [1] : 43  Boar hunting (sometimes in fields rather than forest), deer hunting, and hunting of some other species [55] [56] is regulated by the ministry. [57]

The value of wood product exports is more than twice that of imports, and the value of both exports and imports increased from 2020 to 2022. [45] : 3  In 2022, the country from which the most wood products were imported from was Russia (over 20%) and that to which the most was exported was Iraq (about 10%). [58]

Threats

Some non-native insects, such as scale insects ( Hemiptera: Coccomorpha), [59] are pests. [60] Wildfires in Turkey, such as in 2021, affect the economy in various sectors, such as tourism. [61] The public may be banned from entering forests in the summer in efforts to prevent fires. [62] The 2021 mega fires are estimated to have emitted 10 million tonnes of carbon dioxide from 135 million ha burnt. [3] : 366  The World Bank is helping to increase resilience to wildfires. [44] The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion said that from 2012 to 2022, too many licenses were being granted for non-forest uses, such as mining. [63] However, in 2024, the extension of coal mining in Akbelen Forest was eventually refused after protests, [64] and a 2020 study said that 2010s legislation had made mining in forests more sustainable. [65] Satellites such as Landsat and Sentinel can be used to study fire damage. [66] As of 2021, the Istanbul northern forest is threatened by urban growth. [67]

Regeneration and reforestation

Most potential for reforestation is thought to be in the north. [68] As of 2022, how much of the Central Anatolian steppe was originally forested was not certain, but in some lower regions, it is thought that it has always been steppe and too dry for trees due to the rain shadows of nearby mountains. [69] However a 2018 study said that temperature is more important than precipitation. It said because they are hot the Aegean and Mediterranean regions would potentially be mostly coniferous. And it said the Black Sea and Maramara regions could have broadleaf, mixed forests would be in Central Anatolia. [70] A 2006 study suggested that 50 million ha (64%) of land was potential forest. [71] : 344  For steppe, it has been suggested that overgrazing should be stopped, but that full recovery to woodland should be prevented so as to have both steppe and woodland wildlife. [72]

Regeneration of ancient woodland (also called old-growth forest) may be possible, if local needs are properly considered. [10] : 236  As some reforestation attempts have suffered due to a lack of water, desalination has been suggested. [73] Coppices have become high forests, [3] : 305  and grassland in and around forest has become forests. [3] : 308  Anatolian black pine is commonly used for reforestation. [74] The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion is an involved NGO. [75] The Foresters' Association of Turkey, established in 1924, is one of the country's oldest civil society organisations. [76] It takes twenty years to convert to forest. [3] : 311  Salt, gypsum and very alkali ground can hinder forest growth. [77] Although companies donate some saplings, memorial forests, such as Cyprus Memorial Forest in Silifke, are not usually corporate forests. [78] Belts and lines of trees are planted to combat wind erosion. [79]

Turkey's 12th development plan (2024 to 2028) says that "carbon sink areas will be increased by improving the adaptation capability of our forests to climate change." [80] : 51 

People and culture

Wish tree in late 20th century Cappadocia WunschbaumKappadokien.JPG
Wish tree in late 20th century Cappadocia

Trees and forest are important in Turkish culture. [81] Turkish people include Tahtacı, who may have descended from Ağaçeri and are documented in the short documentary Fatma of the Forest. Turkic mythology may have included the tree of life Ulukayın, [82] and forest spirits archura and äbädä. [83]

Regulations say that the nearest "forest villagers" must do all forestry work. However, younger people are moving to towns and cities, and new equipment is expensive for the villagers. [5] As of 2024, there are 25 thousand forest rangers. [84] 1.2 billion lira (49,000,000 USD) support was provided to eleven thousand families in 2023. [1] : 68 

Notes

  1. ↑ Forested land may be leased for up to 49 years for permitted uses, but in theory would return to forest, and so is still officially forest land. [4]
  2. ↑ dikili damga has been mistranslated as "sewn stamp" [ sic ] but perhaps means timber mark.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2023 Activity Report (PDF) (Report). Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-08-06. Retrieved 2024-08-06.
  2. ↑ Lund, H. Gyde. "What is a Forest? Definitions do make a difference. An example from Turkey". Avrasya Terim Dergisi. Archived from the original on 2024-08-13. Retrieved 2024-08-13.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Turkish Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990 - 2021 [TurkStat report]. Turkish Statistical Institute (Technical report). 14 April 2023.
  4. 1 2 Atmiş, Erdoğan; Yıldız, Damla; Erdönmez, Cihan (2024-04-01). "A different dimension in deforestation and forest degradation: Non-forestry uses of forests in Turkey" . Land Use Policy. 139 107086. Bibcode:2024LUPol.13907086A. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2024.107086. ISSN   0264-8377.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Overview of the forestry sector in Türkiye". Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Food Security and Nature . 2024-03-07. Archived from the original on 2024-09-11. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  6. 1 2 3 Türkiye. National Communication (NC). NC 8. Biennial Reports (BR). BR 5. unfccc.int (Report). 6 May 2024. Retrieved 2024-10-09.
  7. ↑ "Ulusal Orman Envanteri̇ Uzmanliği Eği̇ti̇mi̇ ve Sinavi" [National Forest Inventory Specialist Training and Exam]. tr:Orman Mühendisleri Odası (in Turkish). 27 May 2024. Archived from the original on 18 September 2024.
  8. ↑ "Plots, farmlands, and forests: The real existential threat to Turkey". Gazete Duvar . 2024-04-09. Archived from the original on 2024-09-25. Retrieved 2024-09-25.
  9. ↑ Marston, John M.; Çakırlar, Canan; Luke, Christina; Kováčik, Peter; Slim, Francesca G.; Shin, Nami; Roosevelt, Christopher H. (2022-11-02). "Agropastoral Economies and Land Use in Bronze Age Western Anatolia". Environmental Archaeology . 27 (6): 539–553. Bibcode:2022EnvAr..27..539M. doi:10.1080/14614103.2021.1918485. ISSN   1461-4103. Archived from the original on 2024-10-05. Retrieved 2024-08-05.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Kırca, Simay; Çolak, Alper H.; Rotherham, Ian D. (2018). "The ancient woodland concept as a practical conservation tool: the Turkish experience". Ancient Woodlands and Trees: A Guide For Landscape Planners And Forest Managers. Turkish Academy of Sciences. doi:10.53478/TUBA.2018.014 (inactive 12 July 2025). Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 21 May 2023.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
  11. ↑ Gümüşçü, Osman; Uğur, Abdullah; Aygören, Tülay (2014). "Deforestation in Sixteenth Century Anatolia: The Case of Hüdavendi̇gar (Bursa) Sancak" . Belleten. 78 (281): 167–200. doi: 10.37879/belleten.2014.167 . ISSN   0041-4255. S2CID   245293300. Archived from the original on 2024-04-15. Retrieved 2024-01-26.
  12. 1 2 "Turkey Forests". tr:Orman Genel Müdürlüğü . Archived from the original on 2021-06-03. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
  13. ↑ "Anatolian Sweet Gum Tree (Liquidambar Orientalis Miller)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-08-07. Retrieved 2024-08-07.
  14. ↑ "Tanzimat'ın başarısız girişimi: ilk Orman Müdürlüğünün kuruluşu ve kapatılma süreci". Ağaç ve Orman. ISSN   2757-5349. Archived from the original on 2024-09-18. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  15. ↑ Yurtoğlu, Nadi̇r (2023). "Atatürk dönemi̇nde Türki̇ye'de Orman ve Ormancilik Poli̇ti̇kasi (1920–1938)" [Forests and Forestry Policies in Türkiye in the era of Atatürk (1920-1938)]. Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi (in Turkish). 39 (107): 125–175. doi: 10.33419/aamd.1300709 . ISSN   1011-727X. Archived from the original on 2024-08-17. Retrieved 2024-08-17.
  16. ↑ Tavşanoğlu, Faik. "A survey of Turkish forestry". Archived from the original on 2020-03-25. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  17. 1 2 Bilir, Nebi (June 2017). "General over-view of forest establishment in Turkey" (PDF). Reforesta (3): 48–52. doi:10.21750/REFOR.3.06.30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2021-06-01.
  18. ↑ "Official Statistics". www.ogm.gov.tr. 2023. pp. 1.1 Forest area, growing stock and increment_2023, 2023. Archived from the original on 2024-10-08. Retrieved 2024-10-08.
  19. ↑ Eighth National Communication and Fifth Biennial Report of Türkiye under the UNFCCC (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-08-18. Retrieved 2024-08-13.
  20. ↑ Orman Genel Müdürlüğü 2024-2028 Stratejik Planı [General Directorate of Forestry 2024-2028 Strategic Plan](PDF). Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Report). December 2023.
  21. 1 2 Gençay, Gökçe (2020-07-01). "Legal framework of private afforestation: The case of Turkey" . Land Use Policy. 96 104673. Bibcode:2020LUPol..9604673G. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104673. ISSN   0264-8377. S2CID   218962170.
  22. ↑ "Strategic plan for climate change adaptation of forestry in Turkey: 9 adaptation strategies proposed". climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 2024-08-09. Retrieved 2024-08-09.
  23. ↑ Seventh Mediterranean Forest Week - Proceedings: Antalya, Türkiye, 21–25 March 2022. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2023-07-27. ISBN   978-92-5-137977-6.
  24. 1 2 3 4 Türkiye'de İklim Krizi ile Mücadelede Orman Ekosistemleri ve Yutak Alan Yönetimi [Forest Ecosystems and Sink Area Management in Combating the Climate Crisis in Turkey] (Report) (in Turkish). Turkish Industry and Business Association. 22 May 2023. Archived from the original on 4 December 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  25. ↑ Tufekcioglu, Aydin (March 2018). "Forest ecosystems and drought interactions". Turkish Journal of Forestry.
  26. 1 2 "Türkiye'de Ormanların Coğrafi Bölgelere Göre Dağılımı" [Distribution of Forests in Turkey by geographical region]. www.cografyatr.com (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2021-07-11. Retrieved 2021-06-20.
  27. ↑ Vatandaşlar, Can (2024). "Comparative analysis of forestry systems in the United States and Turkey: Practices, technologies, and challenges". Eurasian Journal of Forest Science. 12: 19–45. doi: 10.31195/ejejfs.1413359 .
  28. ↑ "Integrating maquis vegetation to forest management plans in Turkey". European Forest Institute. 2020-10-27. Archived from the original on 2021-06-22. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
  29. ↑ "Euxine-Colchic Broadleaf Forests". One Earth. 2024-11-15. Archived from the original on 2024-08-29. Retrieved 2025-01-24.
  30. ↑ "Eastern Anatolian Montane Steppe". One Earth. 29 July 2022. Retrieved 2024-02-02. Juniper-almond woodlands
  31. ↑ "Climate change and forest fire trend in the Aegean and Mediterranean regions of Turkey". Fresenius Environmental Bulletin.
  32. ↑ Çamalan, Gülten; Akıl, Sercan; Pekin, Muhammet Ali. "Using Meteorological Early Warning System (MEUS) and Meteorological Indices for Assessment of Manavgat Forest Fires Occurred in Turkiye July-August 2021". Eur J Forest Eng. Archived from the original on 2024-01-13. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
  33. ↑ Vatandaşlar, Can; Zeybek, Mustafa; Borucu, Süleyman (2022-08-15). "Mobil LiDAR ile Orman Envanterlerinde Farklı Örnekleme Tasarımlarının Veri Hassasiyeti ve İş Verimliliğine Etkisi: Rize Şenyuva Örneği" [The Effect of different Sampling Designs on Data Precision and Work Efficiency in Forest Inventories with Mobile Lidar: the example of Rize Şenyuva]. Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi (in Turkish). 24 (2): 258–271. doi: 10.24011/barofd.1070484 . ISSN   1302-0943.
  34. ↑ Atmişa, Erdoğan; Günşena, H. Batuhan; Yücedağb, Cengiz; Lise, Wietze (2017). "Factors affecting the use of urban forests in Turkey". Turkish Journal of Forestry (1): 1–10.
  35. ↑ "City forests" (PDF). www.ogm.gov.tr.
  36. ↑ "Turkish government forces Istanbul Municipality out of managing megacity's largest forest". Gazete Duvar . 2024-12-24. Retrieved 2025-01-18.
  37. ↑ Kuzu, Orhan (19 October 2023). "Ayıların şehre inmesi nasıl önlenebilir?" [How can bears be prevented from entering the city?]. Anadolu Agency . Archived from the original on 13 August 2024.
  38. ↑ Karataş, A.; Bulut, Ş. & Akbaba, B. (2021). "Camera trap records confirm the survival of the Leopard (Panthera pardus L., 1758) in eastern Turkey (Mammalia: Felidae)". Zoology in the Middle East. 67 (3): 1–8. doi:10.1080/09397140.2021.1924419. S2CID   235564429.
  39. ↑ Sarı, A.; Gündoğdu, E.; Başkaya, Ş. & Arpacık, A. (2020). "Habitat preference by the Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana Valenciennes, 1856) in North-eastern Anatolia, Turkey". Belgian Journal of Zoology. 150: 153–168. doi: 10.26496/bjz.2020.78 .
  40. ↑ 2020 Türkiye Orman Varlığı (PDF). Ankara: Orman Mühendisleri Odası. 2021. ISBN   978-605-7599-68-1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-02-28. Retrieved 2025-01-24.
  41. ↑ "Plaza of monumental Inkaya Plane Tree". International Federation of Landscape Architects . Archived from the original on 2024-09-11. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  42. ↑ Mumcu Kucuker, Derya (2020-08-01). "Spatiotemporal changes of carbon storage in forest carbon pools of Western Turkey: 1972–2016" . Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 192 (8) 555. Bibcode:2020EMnAs.192..555M. doi:10.1007/s10661-020-08431-x. ISSN   1573-2959. PMID   32740772. S2CID   220886275.
  43. ↑ "Turkey Resilient Landscape Integration Project". World Bank . 12 March 2020.
  44. 1 2 "Development Projects : Türkiye Climate Resilient Forests Project - P179345". World Bank. Archived from the original on 2024-01-13. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
  45. 1 2 3 4 Türkiye Forest Products Annual Market Review (PDF) (Report). tr:Orman Genel Müdürlüğü. 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-11-09. Retrieved 2024-01-28.
  46. ↑ "Ecotourism Action Plan" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-20. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  47. ↑ Ahi, Berat; Kaya, Gökhan; Kahriman-Pamuk, Deniz (2023-04-04). "Forest schools as a family choice: a narrative study" . Early Child Development and Care. 193 (5): 647–660. doi:10.1080/03004430.2022.2131779. ISSN   0300-4430. S2CID   252831666. Archived from the original on 2024-01-31. Retrieved 2024-01-31.
  48. ↑ Sevimli-Celik, Serap; Canaslan-Akyar, Begum (2024-03-01). "Pre-schoolers in nature: A five-week play & learning experience within a Turkish context" . Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences. 14 (1): 87–101. Bibcode:2024JEnSS..14...87S. doi:10.1007/s13412-023-00867-0. ISSN   2190-6491. S2CID   264337024.
  49. ↑ Gençay, G.; Birben, Ü. (2024-06-01). "Striving for sustainability: Climate-Smart Forestry measures in Türkiye" . International Forestry Review. 26 (2): 198–211. doi:10.1505/146554824838819879.
  50. 1 2 Gunay, Simge (2023). "Household energy poverty: The concept, issues and implications for Turkiye". Sigma Journal of Engineering and Natural Sciences – Sigma Mühendislik ve Fen Bilimleri Dergisi. doi: 10.14744/sigma.2023.00042 .
  51. ↑ Mercan, Muhammed Cihat; Koşma, Elvan Burcu; Karakaş, Yusuf; Akyüz, Serra Melek; Gül, Fuat Berke; Görüryilmaz, Mehmet Turan; Ünal, Berat Berkan (2024-05-03). "Overall approach to building LCA and recent studies in Türkiye" . Advances in Building Energy Research. 18 (3): 322–352. Bibcode:2024AdBER..18..322M. doi:10.1080/17512549.2024.2361343. ISSN   1751-2549.
  52. ↑ İPEK, Özlem; İPEK, Egemen (2021-12-01). "Effects of indoor air pollution on household health: evidence from Turkey". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 28 (47): 67519–67527. Bibcode:2021ESPR...2867519I. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-15175-9. ISSN   1614-7499. PMC   8277228 . PMID   34258706.
  53. 1 2 Parry, Ian; Minnett, Danielle; Zhunussova, Karlygash. "Climate Mitigation Policy in Türkiye". IMF working paper. Archived from the original on 2025-01-13. Retrieved 2024-09-14.
  54. ↑ "Furniture" (PDF). Ministry of Trade. 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-09-08. Retrieved 2024-09-08.
  55. ↑ Özsoy, Sait (2021). "Fatal Land Hunting-Releated Injuries in the Eastern Black Sea Region - Turkey" (PDF). Turkish Journal of Trauma and Emergency Surgery. 28 (10): 1494–1499. doi:10.14744/tjtes.2021.77662. PMC   10277367 . PMID   36169469. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-08-13. Retrieved 2024-08-13.
  56. ↑ Aksoy, Zekeriya; Seven, Erdem (2022). "The Descriptive Overview of Hunting Tourism: General Reviews for Turkey". Journal of Current Debates in Social Sciences. doi:10.37154/cudes.2022.47.
  57. ↑ "Hunting". Ministry of Culture and Tourism . Archived from the original on 2024-08-13. Retrieved 2024-08-13.
  58. ↑ "Wood Products in Turkey". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Archived from the original on 2024-09-08. Retrieved 2024-09-08.
  59. ↑ Ülgentürk, Selma; Dokuyucu, Özden (2019-12-27). "Pest species of Coccoidea (Hemiptera; Coccomorpha) in forest of Turkey". Turkish Journal of Forestry. 20 (4): 482–491. doi:10.18182/tjf.616353. ISSN   2149-3898. Archived from the original on 2024-08-09. Retrieved 2024-08-09.
  60. ↑ Oğuzoğlu, Şükran; Avci, Mustafa. Invasive Alien Forest Insects in Turkey. Turkey 6th Plant Protection Congress with International Participation.
  61. ↑ Forest Fires Causes, Effects, Monitoring, Precautions and Rehabilitation Activities. Turkish Academy of Sciences. 2021. ISBN   978-605-2249-79-6. Archived from the original on 2024-02-21. Retrieved 2024-02-21.
  62. ↑ "Istanbul bans entry to forests to prevent fires". Hürriyet Daily News . 2024-06-08. Archived from the original on 2024-08-10. Retrieved 2024-08-10.
  63. ↑ "We need forest and water assets for a peaceful world!". TEMA Foundation . Archived from the original on 2024-08-09. Retrieved 2024-08-09.
  64. ↑ "Erdoğan quickly rescinds decree opening land around Akbelen forest for mining". Gazete Duvar . 2024-03-15. Archived from the original on 2024-09-06. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
  65. ↑ Yıldız, Taşkın Deniz (2020). "Evaluation of forestland use in mining operation activities in Turkey in terms of sustainable natural resources". Land Use Policy. 96 104638. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104638.
  66. ↑ Güney, Coşkun Okan; Mert, Ahmet; Gülsoy, Serkan (2023-12-01). "Assessing fire severity in Turkey's forest ecosystems using spectral indices from satellite images". Journal of Forestry Research. 34 (6): 1747–1761. Bibcode:2023JFoR...34.1747G. doi: 10.1007/s11676-023-01620-7 . ISSN   1993-0607.
  67. ↑ Kuzey Ormanlari Tehdit ve Tahrip Raporu [Northern Forests Threat and Destruction Report](PDF) (Report). 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-08-09. Retrieved 2024-08-09.
  68. ↑ https://www.reforestationhub.org/global
  69. ↑ Kahveci, Gülzade (2022). "General Characteristics and Distribution of Forest Relicts in Central Anatolia" (PDF). Forestist. 72 (2): 192–198. doi:10.54614/forestist.2022.21056. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-11-11. Retrieved 2023-11-11.
  70. ↑ Raja, Nussaïbah B.; Aydin, Olgu; Çiçek, İhsan; Türkoğlu, Necla (2019-12-01). "A reconstruction of Turkey's potential natural vegetation using climate indicators" . Journal of Forestry Research. 30 (6): 2199–2211. doi:10.1007/s11676-018-0855-7. ISSN   1993-0607.
  71. ↑ Rotherham, Ian D.; Çolak, Alper H. (2006). "A Review of the Forest Vegetation of Turkey: its Status Past and Present and its Future Conservation". Biology & Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 106 (3): 343–354. doi:10.3318/BIOE.2006.106.3.343.
  72. ↑ Ambarlı, Didem (27 March 2011). Assessment of Current Condition of Steppes in Central Anatolia for Conservation Purposes/ Turkey (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 November 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2023.
  73. ↑ Caldera, Upeksha; Breyer, Christian (2023-02-06). "Afforesting arid land with renewable electricity and desalination to mitigate climate change". Nature Sustainability. 6 (5): 526–538. Bibcode:2023NatSu...6..526C. doi: 10.1038/s41893-022-01056-7 . ISSN   2398-9629. S2CID   256646404.
  74. ↑ Ayan, Sezgin; Yücedag, Cengiz; Simovski, Bojan (2021). "A major tool for afforestation of semi-arid and anthropogenic steppe areas in Turkey: Pinus nigra J.F. Arnold subsp. Pallasiana (Lamb.) Holmboe". Journal of Forest Science. 67 (10): 449–463. doi: 10.17221/74/2021-JFS .
  75. ↑ "81 Forests in 81 Cities". Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion . Archived from the original on 2024-09-08. Retrieved 2024-09-08.
  76. ↑ Sefercik, Recep; Öztürk, Ünsal; Baykara, Oğuzhan; Yıldız, Tanıl; Tümer, Dilek Şevval (2020). "Türkiye Ormancılar Derneği" (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2024-09-15. Retrieved 2024-09-15.
  77. ↑ Atalay, Ibrahim; Efe, Recep; Öztürk, Münir (2014). "Ecology and Classification of Forests in Turkey". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 120: 788–805. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.02.163 .
  78. ↑ "TEMA, Türkiye Erozyonla Mücadele, Ağaçlandırma ve Doğal Varlıkları Koruma Vakfı". www.tema.org.tr. Archived from the original on 2024-09-17. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  79. ↑ "Activities for combatting wind erosion in Turkey" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-08-08. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
  80. ↑ "12th Development plan" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-09-13. Retrieved 2024-10-09.
  81. ↑ Özarslan, Metin (2003-01-01). "Türk Kültüründe Ağaç ve Orman Kültü". Türkbilig. Archived from the original on 2024-12-13. Retrieved 2024-08-09.
  82. ↑ "THE ESTABLISHED IN THE CITY" (PDF). p. 310.
  83. ↑ "Turkic Folklore against the background of the World Picture". European International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Management Studies. ISSN   2750-8587. Archived from the original on 2024-08-05. Retrieved 2024-08-05.
  84. ↑ "Presidency Of The Republic Of Turkey : "We spare no effort in fighting forest fires effectively"". www.tccb.gov.tr. Retrieved 2024-10-08.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.