Economy of Turkey |
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Agriculture is still an important sector of Turkey's economy, and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers. [1] Wheat, sugar beet, milk, poultry, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major products; [2] and Turkey is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts, [3] apricots, [2] and oregano. [4]
Half of Turkey's land is agricultural, [2] and farming employs about 15% of the workforce, [5] but under half a million farmers. [6] [7] It provides about 10% of exports [8] and over 5% of gross domestic product (GDP). [9] Over 380 billion lira of agricultural subsidy is budgeted for 2024. [10]
Despite being a major food producer, Turkey is a net wheat importer, much of it coming from Russia and Ukraine. [11] Turkey is the European Union (EU)'s fourth largest vegetable supplier and the seventh largest fruit supplier. Turkey would like to extend the EU Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products. [12]
Around half of Turkey's agricultural greenhouse gas is due to cattle. [lower-alpha 1] According to the World Bank, the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements. [6] Strategic planning is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, but no plan for 2024 onwards has yet been published. [14] [15] Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically. [16]
Historically, Turkey's farmers have been fairly fragmented. [17] Atatürk, who founded the republic in the early 20th century, said that the foundation of the economy was agriculture. [18] Governments initiated many projects, such as the controversial [19] Southeastern Anatolia Project, [20] but later much agriculture was privatized. [21]
The population increased a lot in the 20th century, so there was more demand for food and agricultural land. From 1880 to 1950 agricultural output growth averaged about 1% a year, in line with the increased population having new land. [22] Then growth accelerated as more land could be cultivated because there were many more machines, such as tractors – for example due to the Marshall Plan. [22] By the 1970s higher yielding varieties of wheat had been planted, [23] but einkorn continued to be consumed by locals. [24]
The increase in agricultural land continued until the 1990s when it started to decrease. [25] Like many other countries Turkey industrialized and urbanized, and by the end of the 20th century only 35% of employment and 13% of GDP was from agriculture. [22]
Formerly widespread in the west and centre of the country, in 1933 opium growing was strictly controlled. [26] In the 20th century growing tobacco was economically important in provinces such as Samsun, and was supported by the state, but in the early 21st century it was discouraged by governments keen to reduce smoking in Turkey. [27] During the early 21st century farmers shifted to growing more profitable crops such as fruit and vegetables, instead of wheat and corn. [28] : 4
Half of Turkey's land is agricultural. [2] Turkish agriculture emits greenhouse gases half from cattle. Since at least 1990 enteric fermentation (cows and sheep belching methane) has been the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, followed by agricultural soils. [29] : 38 According to the World Bank, the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements. [6] The Aegean Region may be the most at risk from climate change. [30] However coffee can now be grown in the country. [31]
14% of food was lost during agricultural processing in 2016, compared to 23% trashed by consumers before eating and 5% leftovers. [32] Stubble burning is illegal in Turkey, but farmers continue the practice illicitly. [33] Deliberate burning of field residue can cause wildfires in Turkey. [34] Agriculture on steep land can increase the risk of flooding. [35] : 32 In 2020 over 900 thousand tonnes of ammonia was emitted. [36]
At around 1300 m3 freshwater per person per year Turkey is water-stressed and at risk of water scarcity, mainly due to wasteful irrigation. [37] [38] [39] Water pricing is being considered. [40] Desertification has been modelled and the risk has been mapped, [35] showing that high-risk regions are Karapınar, Aralık, Ceylanpınar and Lake Tuz basins. [41] Solar power is occasionally used to pump water to combat drought, [42] which can reduce planting of crops such as corn and potatoes. [43] The irrigation part of the Eastern Anatolia Project is controversial. [44]
Farmers mostly use surface irrigation, which loses 35% to 60% of water through evaporation, seepage, and leakage. [45] This old-fashioned irrigation may quickly deplete groundwater and run off the farm. Runoff is causing nitrogen pollution in some river basins. [46] This can cause eutrophication which threatens aquatic life [47] and a project is ongoing to map and combat this. [48] As of 2023 [update] 73% of Turkey's water supply is used for irrigation, and it has been estimated that this is double what it would be if all farmers used drip irrigation. [49] Farmers are reluctant because of the installation cost of drip installation, and more government support has been suggested. [39] Shrinking lakes have been blamed both on reduced precipitation due to climate change and incorrect crops using more water, such as corn and sugar beet. [50]
The most important regions for agriculture are the Mediterranean, Aegean, Black Sea, Thrace and Marmara, Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia and transition regions. [21] : 8
By the mid-20th century erosion had reduced the amount of arable land, [51] but the government is combating desertification and erosion in various ways. [35] However soil erosion is forecast to increase with climate change, with about 30% occurring on agricultural land. [52] The main types of soil in Turkey are calisols, cambisols and leptosols, and fluvisols. [53] Degraded soil could be improved. [21] : 11 Soil surveys have been done at least since the 1950s, [54] and the ministry has published soil maps. [55] [56] [57] [58] The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion is an NGO as is the Soil Science Society of Turkey. [59] A 2016 study said soil had been degraded and that there was great potential to sequester carbon. [60] There is a public soil database, [61] but as of 2023 the weblink does not work. [62] Increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) in agricultural soils is important, and in 2017 total SOC down to 0.7 m was estimated at 9.23 Pg. [63] Another estimate is slightly under 3000 tonnes/sq km. [25] Accumulation of soil organic matter depends partly on cultivation but can be hindered by aridity. [64]
Crops can be grown in all regions and there is livestock on high mountains and in arid regions. [65] Wheat, sugar beet, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major crops; [2] and Turkey is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts, [3] apricots, [2] oregano [4] and raisins. [66]
As of 2023 [update] most cultivated land is for grain. [67] In 2022 70 million tonnes of cereals and other crops were produced; 32 million tonnes of vegetables; and 27 million tonnes of fruit, beverages and spice crops; [68] and the country was self-sufficient in rapeseed, dry beans, potatoes and sugar beet and almost all fruits and vegetables. [69] Due to rotation a third of arable land is fallow each year. [21] : 8
In 2021 the country was almost self-sufficient in cereals, [70] and the largest exports in 2022 were to Iraq, the United States and Syria. [71] However in hotter and colder[ need quotation to verify ] years less cereal is produced. [72] About 20 million tonnes a year of wheat are grown, but less than half that each of barley and corn. [73] Most wheat is winter wheat. [74] Wheat yields average 2 and a half tonnes a hectare, [75] and climate change affects both wheat productivity and where it is grown. [76] Barley is not usually irrigated, so yield depends on rainfall. [74] Drought can be a problem for both winter wheat and winter barley. [77] Nearly 85% of corn is used to make animal feed. [74] Rice is planted April/May and harvested Sept/Oct. [74]
Citrus fruits are grown mainly in the Mediterranean and Aegean regions. [78] Many tomatoes are exported. [79] Most vegetable and fruit exports are to the EU. [80] Greenhouses have a competitive advantage over EU ones due to lower costs. [81] In 2022 Turkey had a third of the world's greenhouses heated by geothermal energy. [82] Geothermal heat can also be used to dry fruit. [83] Tropical fruit such as mangoes can be grown in greenhouses. [84] In 2023 hydroponics was starting to be used in these geothermal greenhouses. [85] Although banana cultivation in the Mediterranean region is increasing, [86] some farmers are switching to avocados as they are more profitable because they need less water. [87] [88]
About 4 million tonnes of grapes are grown annually, [89] ranking sixth in the world. [90] The country has the fifth largest area of vineyard, [91] and about 3% of the harvest is used for Turkish wine. [91] Raisins are exported to the EU and the United Kingdom. [92]
There are almost 200 million olive trees, [93] and Turkey produces about 200 thousand tonnes of olive oil a year, [94] that is an average of 1 kg per tree per year. Edremit (Ayvalık) is the main variety in northern Turkey and Memecik in the south. Gemlik is a black table olive and many other varieties are grown. [95]
About 70% of the world's hazelnuts are produced in Turkey. Ferrero, the Italian producer of Nutella spread, buys the most. [97] The agriculture ministry is encouraging planting more almond and commercial walnut trees, as national supply does not meet domestic demand. [97] Around 200 thousand tonnes of pistachios are produced annually but yields vary a lot between on and off years. The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion has been training pistachio farmers. [97]
Almost half of the country's sunflower seeds are grown in Thrace, and more sunflower oil is consumed than olive oil, as it is cheaper. Soybeans are used as a rotation crop and to feed fish and chickens. [98]
Since the mid-20th century most of the tea produced in Turkey has been Rize tea, a terroir from Rize Province on the Eastern Black Sea coast. [99] Rize has a mild climate with high precipitation and fertile soil. [99]
In 2019 Turkey produced 1.45 million tonnes of tea (4% of the world's tea), and was one of the largest tea markets in the world, [100] with 1.26 million tonnes being consumed in Turkey, and the rest being exported. [99] Turks drink the most tea per person at 3.5 kg each a year, or almost four glasses a day. [101] Turkey has high import tariffs on tea, roughly 145%, which helps maintain the domestic market for locally produced teas. [102]
However by 2023 production had fallen to just over 500 thousand tonnes, due to high temperatures and irregular rainfall. [103]There are about a thousand species of herbs, medicines and spices, of which almost half are exported, with oregano, bay leaves, sage, aniseed and cumin being the top export earners. Much aniseed is used in the country to flavour rakı. [104] Turkey produces most of the world's oregano, [4] and garlic is grown. [105] Opium is grown for medicines. [26]
There are about 150 thousand sq km of pasture. [25] Much more meat is produced from cattle than sheep. [106] A lot of sheep and goat meat is exported to Iraq. Over 20 million tonnes of milk is produced each year. [107] The meat and milk board regulates the meat market. [108]
The main animal feed crops are alfalfa, silage corn, oats, vetch, and sainfoin. [109] Animal feed manufacture depends on imports and more cattle feed is produced than chicken feed. [74] Livestock are affected by foot and mouth disease. [110]
In 2022 there were 17 million cattle [111] of which about 70% were dairy. [107] Native cattle breeds such as Anatolian Black cattle are low yielding but hardy. [112] About 80% of cattle farm expenditure is on feed, with half of the ingredients being imported. [113] In 2023 inflation was a problem for cattle farmers as feed prices were increasing faster than milk and beef prices. Most imports are feeder cattle for beef. [107] Around half of Turkey's agricultural greenhouse gas is due to cattle. [lower-alpha 2] Traditionally transhumance was practiced. The Agriculture Ministry is trying to get more biogas produced from cattle waste. [115]
Turkey is a major sheep producer. In 2022 there were 45 million sheep, [111] including 30 million ewes (mostly of the fat-tailed type) and the average flock size was 85. A quarter of meat is from sheep, with 390 thousand tonnes a year and an average 4.2 kilograms (9.3 lb) is consumed per person per year. The highest sheep meat consumption is during Eid Al Adha. Turkish sheep meat is exported to Iraq, Syria and Gulf countries. Cheese is made from sheep milk. [116] Sheep and goats are mostly fed on pasture. [107] In 2022 there were 12 million goats and 170 thousand water buffalos. [111]
There are over 400 marine aquaculture facilities. [117] Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and sea bream (Sparus aurata) are farmed, and mostly trout (rainbow trout and brown trout) in inland waters, these 3 being the most farmed, with about 150 thousand tonnes a year of each. [90] Aquaculture overtook fishing in 2020, with Muğla, İzmir and Elazığ being the top provinces.
Government support is provided, although subsidies for seabream and seabass ended in 2016. [117] In 2021, US$1.2 billion worth of farmed fish were exported, [6] and Turkey was the worlds top producer of seabass and seabream. [117] Most exports are to the EU and EU directives are followed. [117]
Over a million tonnes of poultry meat and over 2 million tonnes of eggs are produced a year, [118] and over a hundred thousand tonnes of honey. [119]
It is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically. [16] Seeds and bulbs are stored long term. [120] The World Bank has a project to improve sustainable agriculture in some regions, [121] however in the first 2 decades of the 21st century farming is thought not to have been sustainable. [122] The EU said in 2022 that food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy should be improved. [123]
Various tech is being considered, sometimes similar is already being made in local factories, for example the defence industry makes drones. [124] There are about 2 million tractors and it has been suggested that electric tractors should be subsidized. [125] However, there is only one electric tractor manufacturer and they are not yet mass-produced. [126] There is a General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies (TAGEM) centre for research on soil borne pathogens. [127]
As of 2022 [update] some gene editing of animal feed corn and feed soya has been allowed but not for human food. [128] Biostimulants have been suggested to increase drought resistance and food security, as has technology to use water more efficiently. [129] No-till farming is being studied. [130] A 2023 study said that enforcement of pesticide rules was lax. [131]
Examples of good practice suggested by the Turkish Industry and Business Association (TÜSİAD) include reduced ploughing, low fertiliser use, mulching, and nitrogen inhibitors. [132] : 19 Less ploughing saves fuel costs. [133] : 399
Agriculture is an important sector of Turkey's economy, and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers. [1] Over 50 billion dollars revenue a year is from agriculture, [67] and farming provided 10% of exports in 2020 [8] and 6.5% of GDP in 2022. [9] Despite being a major food producer, Turkey is a net wheat importer, with much of it coming from Russia and Ukraine. [11] Turkey is the EU's fourth largest non-EU vegetable supplier and the seventh largest fruit supplier. In 2023 Finance Minister Mehmet Şimşek said he would like to restart negotiations on the "low-hanging fruit" of extending the EU Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products, which had come to a halt in 2018; [134] as of 2023 [update] the agreement only applies to processed agricultural products. [135] In 2021, Turkey received 65 percent of all imported wheat from Russia and more than 13 percent from Ukraine. [11] Around 70% of imported wheat is reexported as pasta, bulgur and flour. [136] Europe and the Middle East are large export markets and some food is processed before export. [1] In 2020 the country receiving the most exports was Iraq, [137] and that sending the most food to Turkey was Russia. [138] Turkey is the world's largest exporter of wheat flour, and some other countries' flour producers say it is dumping with unfair subsidies. [139] The EU intends to support rural development with €430 million during 2021–2027. [140] Total factor productivity is estimated to have decreased by 2% annually on average from 2005 to 2016. [141] According to the International Fund for Agricultural Development "investment is needed to help farmers update production techniques, boost productivity and cope with climate change" in the uplands (most rural land is uplands). [1] In 2023 food inflation was over 50%. [129] In 2023 the EU complained that Turkey was restricting imports and said it should improve food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy. [142]
Although in April 2023 there were no import taxes on wheat, barley, maize, rye, oats, legumes and sorghum; [143] as of May 2023 there is a 130% import tariff on wheat, rye, oats, barley and corn. The TMO price of wheat was about 30% below the market price in 2023. [136] Gübretaş and Hektaş are large producers of fertiliser and other farm products. State enterprises market some products. [40] The largest sugar company is the state-owned Türkşeker. [144] Over a billion dollars of damage to agriculture infrastructure and storage was done by the 2023 earthquake. [145] The Agricultural Insurance Pool(Turkish) is linked to the government. But import tariffs average over 40% so it would be hard to add agriculture to the EU customs union. [146] Some academics say that high food price inflation is due to macroeconomic instability. [147] Food price rises such as onion and potato prices can be politically sensitive. [147] TÜSİAD say that Turkey needs a good climate change adaptation strategy to cope with effects such as drought. [147] Input costs could be reduced by replacing some diesel use with solar power, but as of 2022 agrivoltaics is only allowed on agriculturally marginal land. and farmers say there is too much red tape. [28] Problems include small farm sizes, rising import costs and natural resource depletion such as soil. [28] : 4 Nearly two-thirds of farms are smaller than 5 hectares, possibly due to divisions on inheritance. [45]
There are just under half a million farmers as of 2022 [update] , [6] [7] 16% of the workforce. [5] As of 2022, [update] agricultural statistics need improvement according to the EU. [148] In 2022 there were over 2 million people on the Agriculture Ministry's Farmer Registration System, [149] but only half a million were farmers [150] and known to the Social Security Institution. [151] Many farms are small, [152] mostly single person or family farms, [153] with many women working informally. [154] It has been claimed that with the influx of Syrian refugees seasonal agricultural work became more precarious, especially for women and children. [155] [156] Kurdish seasonal workers are also poor. [157] The International Labour Organization is helping to stop child labour. [158] The UN Food and Agriculture Organization has various projects, prioritising "Food and Nutrition Security and Food Safety", "Sustainable use of natural resources and raising awareness on climate change impacts" and "Institutional Capacity of Public and Private Sectors". [159]
The 2024 agricultural support budget was €2.7 billion. [160] In 2019–21 about 20% of gross farm income was government support, mostly market price support, particularly for potatoes, wheat, sunflower seed and beef. [40] Diesel and fertilizer payments were made, which may make the goal of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2053 more difficult. [40] According to environmental group Doğa the subsidies for water intensive crops such as corn and sugar beet endanger wetlands in Turkey. [161] [162] Farmers are not allowed to export wheat. [163] Despite subsidies farmers' fuel and fertilizer costs increased a lot in 21/22 due to international price rises and the fall in the lira. [74] The state's Grain Board (TMO)(Turkish) sometimes pays more for foreign than Turkish wheat, and farmers complain that foreign wheat is sold at a discount: [163] this is done so bread is cheaper, as Turks eat so much bread. [74] A TMO objective is to stabilize grain prices. [74] Cotton growing [164] and oilseeds [98] are subsidized. There is some support for organic farming. [165] Some farmers say their debt is due to not enough state support. [160]
Although a healthy amount of sugar is less than 50g a day for an adult [166] the sugar production quota for market year 23/24 was 3 million tonnes, [167] thus for the population of 85 million about twice as much sugar is produced than is healthy.
Turkey is a founding member of the OECD and G20. The country's economy ranked as the 18th-largest in the world and 8th-largest in Europe by nominal GDP in 2023. It also ranked as the 11th-largest in the world and 5th-largest in Europe by PPP in 2023. According to the IMF, as of 2022, Turkey had an upper-middle income, mixed-market, emerging economy. Turkey has often been defined as a newly industrialized country since the turn of the 21st century. The country is the fifth most visited destination in the world, and has over 1,500 R&D centres established both by multinational and national firms. Turkey is among the world's leading producers of agricultural products, textiles, motor vehicles, transportation equipment, construction materials, consumer electronics, and home appliances. Among OECD nations, Turkey has a highly efficient and strong social security system; social expenditure stood at roughly 12.5% of GDP.
An agricultural subsidy is a government incentive paid to agribusinesses, agricultural organizations and farms to supplement their income, manage the supply of agricultural commodities, and influence the cost and supply of such commodities.
Although Australia is mostly arid, the nation is a major agricultural producer and exporter, with over 325,300 people employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing as of February 2015. Agriculture and its closely related sectors earn $155 billion a year for a 12% share of GDP. Farmers and grazers own 135,997 farms, covering 61% of Australia's landmass. Across the country, there is a mix of irrigation and dry-land farming. The success of Australia in becoming a major agricultural power despite the odds is facilitated by its policies of long-term visions and promotion of agricultural reforms that greatly increased the country's agricultural industry.
Agriculture is a major sector of the Nigerian economy, accounting for up to 35% of total employment in 2020. According to the FAO, agriculture remains the foundation of the Nigerian economy, providing livelihood for most Nigerians and generating millions of jobs. Along with crude oil, Nigeria relies on the agricultural products it exports to generate most of its national revenue. The agricultural sector in Nigeria comprises four sub-sectors: crop production, livestock, forestry, and fishing.
The history of agriculture in India dates back to the Neolithic period. India ranks second worldwide in farm outputs. As per the Indian economic survey 2020 -21, agriculture employed more than 50% of the Indian workforce and contributed 20.2% to the country's GDP.
Roughly one-third of Iran's total surface area is suitable for farmland, but because of poor soil and a lack of adequate water distribution in many areas, most of it is not under cultivation. Only 12% of the total land area is under cultivation but less than one-third of the cultivated area is irrigated; the rest is devoted to dryland farming. Some 92 percent of agricultural products depend on water. The western and northwestern portions of the country have the most fertile soils. Iran's food security index stands at around 96 percent.
Tea is a popular drink throughout Turkey and the Turkish diaspora. Turkey has the highest per capita tea consumption in the world with an annual total consumption of over 3 kilograms per person. Turkey is a large exporter of tea, ranking fifth among the top exporting countries. Tea plays a big role in social gatherings that take place in tea houses and gardens. It is also used as a herbal medicine. Turkish tea culture extends to Northern Cyprus and some countries in the Balkan Peninsula. Turkish tea has a long and expansive history that shaped its harvesting even before the founding of the modern Turkish Republic. Since its introduction to Turkey, tea has become a large part of Turkish culture.
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Agriculture is considered the backbone of Pakistan's economy, which relies heavily on its major crops. Pakistan's principal natural resources are arable land and water. Agriculture accounts for about 18.9% of Pakistan's GDP and employs about 42.3% of the labour force. The most agricultural province is Punjab where wheat & cotton are the most grown. Mango orchards are mostly found in Sindh and Punjab provinces, making it the world's fourth largest producer of mangoes.
Uganda's favorable soil conditions and climate have contributed to the country's agricultural success. Most areas of Uganda have usually received plenty of rain. In some years, small areas of the southeast and southwest have averaged more than 150 millimeters per month. In the north, there is often a short dry season in December and January. Temperatures vary only a few degrees above or below 20 °C but are moderated by differences in altitude.
Agriculture in Lebanon is the third most productive sector in the country after the tertiary and industrial sectors. It contributes 3.1% of GDP and 8 percent of the effective labor force. The sector includes an informal Syrian labor and is dependent on foreign labor for its productivity. Main crops include cereals, fruits and vegetables, olives, grapes, and tobacco, along with sheep and goat herding. Mineral resources are limited and are only exploited for domestic consumption. Lebanon, which has a variety of agricultural lands, from the interior plateau of the Beqaa Valley to the narrow valleys leading downward to the sea, enables farmers to grow both European and tropical crops. Tobacco and figs are grown in the south, citrus fruits and bananas along the coast, olives in the north and around the Shouf Mountains, and fruits and vegetables in the Beqaa Valley. More exotic crops include avocados, grown near Byblos, and hashish. Although the country benefits from favorable farming conditions and diverse microclimates, it relies on food imports, which make up 80% of its consumption.
In New Zealand, agriculture is the largest sector of the tradable economy. The country exported NZ$46.4 billion worth of agricultural products in the 12 months to June 2019, 79.6% of the country's total exported goods. The agriculture, forestry and fisheries sector directly contributed $12.653 billion of the national GDP in the 12 months to September 2020, and employed 143,000 people, 5.9% of New Zealand's workforce, as of the 2018 census.
Agriculture in England is today intensive, highly mechanised, and efficient by European standards, producing about 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force. It contributes around 2% of GDP. Around two thirds of production is devoted to livestock, one third to arable crops. Agriculture is heavily subsidised by the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy.
Agriculture in Morocco employs about 40% of the nation's workforce. Thus, it is the largest employer in the country. In the rainy sections of the northwest, barley, wheat, and other cereals can be raised without irrigation. On the Atlantic coast, where there are extensive plains, olives, citrus fruits, and wine grapes are grown, largely with water supplied by artesian wells. Livestock are raised and forests yield cork, cabinet wood, and building materials. Part of the maritime population fishes for its livelihood. Agadir, Essaouira, El Jadida, and Larache are among the important fishing harbors. Both the agriculture and fishing industries are expected to be severely impacted by climate change.
Moldova is an agrarian-industrial state, with agricultural land occupying 2,499,000 hectares in a total area of 3,384,600 hectares. It is estimated that 1,810,500 of these hectares are arable. Moldova is located in Eastern Europe, and is landlocked, bordering Romania and Ukraine. Moldova's agricultural sector benefits from a geographical proximity to large markets, namely the European Union. As a share of GDP, agriculture has declined from 56% in 1995 to 13.8% in 2013. Data from 2015 estimated that agriculture accounted for 12% of Moldova's GDP. Agriculture as a sector is export-oriented, with the composition of Moldova's total exports containing agriculture and the agri-food sector as a main component. 70% of agri-food exports in 2012 included beverages, edible fruits and nuts, oilseeds, vegetable preparations and cereals. Here, fruits, vegetables and nuts were attributed to 33% of Moldova's exports for 2011–2013. Moldova is also one of the top ten apple exporters in the world. However, because of the long-term emphasis on fruit, vegetables are often imported.
Turkey generates about 30 million tons of solid municipal waste per year; the annual amount of waste generated per capita amounts to about 400 kilograms. According to Waste Atlas, Turkey's waste collection coverage rate is 77%, whereas its unsound waste disposal rate is 69%. While the country has a strong legal framework in terms of laying down common provisions for waste management, the implementation process has been considered slow since the beginning of 1990s.
Droughts and heatwaves are the main hazards due to the climate of Turkey getting hotter. The temperature has risen by more than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), and there is more extreme weather.
Coal, cars and lorries vent more than a third of Turkey's six hundred million tonnes of annual greenhouse gas emissions, which are mostly carbon dioxide and part of the cause of climate change in Turkey. The nation's coal-fired power stations emit the most carbon dioxide, and other significant sources are road vehicles running on petrol or diesel. After coal and oil the third most polluting fuel is fossil gas; which is burnt in Turkey's gas-fired power stations, homes and workplaces. Much methane is belched by livestock; cows alone produce half of the greenhouse gas from agriculture in Turkey.
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Agriculture in Ireland began during the neolithic era, when inhabitants of the island began to practice animal husbandry and farming grains. Principal crops grown during the neolithic era included barley and wheat.
Tarım ve Orman Bakarı İbrahim Yumaklı ….. şeker pancarı alım fiyatının ton başına …. bin 855 lira olduğunu bildirdi.[Minister of Agriculture and Forestry İbrahim Yumaklı stated that the purchase price of sugar beet ….. is 1,855 lira,]