Hazelnut production in Turkey is important as Turkey cultivates and processes most of the world's hazelnuts. [1]
Hazelnut production in Turkey is important as Turkey cultivates and processes most of the world's hazelnuts. [1]
There are accounts dating back to 1500 BC of hazelnuts being cultivated in the Black Sea region [2] (historically Lazistan) and the Turkish historian Evliya Çelebi described hazelnut orchards in the 1650s, during the Ottoman Empire. [3] The hazelnut plantations are mainly located in the Black Sea region between Artvin and Kocaeli. The hazelnut regions are divided in an older eastern part which spans from Ordu to Artvin and a new hazelnut region in the western part of the Black Sea between Samsun and Kocaeli. Most hazelnuts are grown in the provinces of Ordu, Samsun, Artvin and Giresun while in Sakarya and Düzce hazelnut production is very efficient. In Ordu alone, 200,000 tons were harvested in 2017. [3]
As many young people have moved to cities farmers tend to be older. [4]
Several traditional cultivars of hazel tree account for the bulk of the harvest, such as Tombul, Çakıldak, Foşa and Sivri, but since 2012 an ambitious breeding program led to cultivars with a faster ripening process. [5] Harvesting and drying is usually in August. [4] Average farm size is about 3 hectares [6] and often steeply sloping: this size is said to be due to division on inhertitance and too small. [7]
Hazelnut plantations are widespread and approximately 400,000 families are in possession of an orchard. After criticism that children have been employed harvesting hazelnuts, Ferrero, one of the main clients of the hazelnut industry and the producer of Nutella, started a Farming Values Programme in 2012. [8] Balsu and Olam International, two other major enterprises involved in the industry, have also begun to tackle child labor in co-operation with Nestlé and the Turkish Government. [9] Hazelnut production in Turkey rose steadily after 1964, when a law on a Guarantee of Purchase was introduced, after which a large part of the peasants in the Black Sea region became hazelnut cultivators. Thereafter, Turkey became the most important producer of hazelnuts and exports to more than a 100 countries. [10] Over half the production cost is labour, and the largest cost is for harvesting. [4] The largest environmental impact is from synthetic fertiliser use and it has been suggested that the yield should be studied for different soils and fertiliser use varied accordingly. [4] It has also been suggested that farmers should be supported in the 3 year transition to organic farming. [6] As of 2023 there is not much organic farming, due to the difficulties of getting enough nitrogen into the soil and controlling some pests, especially nut weevil. [11]
The damages on the hazelnut industry in Turkey has been estimated to be US$200 million in 2017, US$300 million in 2018 and is mainly attributed to the brown marmorated stink bug, green stink bug and the powdery mildew. [12]
The stink bug was first reported in Levent district of Istanbul in Turkey in September 2017. [13] In October of the same year it was observed in Artvin Province [14] [15] and the species has rapidly spread to other areas in Eastern Black Sea Region, where most of the hazelnut production occurs. The bug is believed to have entered the country through Georgia, as it was initially reported in Kemalpaşa, Artvin just few kilometers away from the border between both countries. [14] [15] Celal Tuncer, a professor from the Ondokuz Mayıs University has stated that the bug has already caused a 20% drop in Artvin's hazelnut yield and is expected to cause a 50% drop in hazelnut production and quality in the future. According to Tuncer these drops would lead to US$1 billion in damages to hazelnut producers. [16]
The hazelnut is the fruit of the hazel tree and therefore includes any of the nuts deriving from species of the genus Corylus, especially the nuts of the species Corylus avellana. They are also known as cobnuts or filberts according to species.
The Pentatomoidea are a superfamily of insects in the suborder Heteroptera of the order Hemiptera. As hemipterans, they possess a common arrangement of sucking mouthparts. The roughly 7000 species under Pentatomoidea are divided into 21 families. Among these are the stink bugs and shield bugs, jewel bugs, giant shield bugs, and burrower bugs.
Pentatomidae is a family of insects belonging to the order Hemiptera, generally called shield bugs or stink bugs. Pentatomidae is the largest family in the superfamily Pentatomoidea, and contains around 900 genera and over 4700 species. As hemipterans, the pentatomids have piercing sucking mouthparts, and most are phytophagous, including several species which are severe pests on agricultural crops. However, some species, particularly in the subfamily Asopinae, are predatory and may be considered beneficial.
Scutelleridae is a family of true bugs. They are commonly known as jewel bugs or metallic shield bugs due to their often brilliant coloration. With the name based on the Asian genus Scutellera, they are also known as shield-backed bugs due to the enlargement of the thoracic scutellum into a continuous shield over the abdomen and wings. This latter characteristic distinguishes them from most other families within Heteroptera, and may lead to misidentification as a beetle rather than a bug. These insects feed on plant juices from a variety of different species, including some commercial crops. Closely related to stink bugs, they may also produce an offensive odour when disturbed. There are around 450 species worldwide.
Ünye is a municipality and district of Ordu Province, Turkey. Its area is 569 km2, and its population is 132,432 (2022). It is on the Black Sea coast, 76 km west of the city of Ordu.
Acanthosomatidae is a family of Hemiptera, commonly named "shield bugs" or "stink bugs". Kumar in his 1974 world revision recognized 47 genera; now this number is 55 genera, with about 200 species, and it is one of the least diverse families within Pentatomoidea. The Acanthosomatidae species are found throughout the world, being most abundant in high-latitude temperate regions and in subtropical regions at high altitudes.
The green shield bug is a Palearctic shield bug species in the family Pentatomidae. The name might equally apply to several other species in the tribe Nezarini, or if referred-to as a "green stink bug", it might more appropriately belong to the larger North American bug, Chinavia hilaris. The adult green shield bug ranges in the colour of their backs from bright green to bronze, without any substantial markings. Green shield bugs are a very common shield bug throughout Europe, including Great Britain & Ireland, and are found in a large variety of habitats, including gardens. They have been found as far north as 63° N latitude.
The Black Sea Region is a geographical region of Turkey. The largest city in the region is Samsun. Other big cities are Zonguldak, Trabzon, Ordu, Tokat, Giresun, Rize, Amasya and Sinop.
The brown marmorated stink bug is an insect in the family Pentatomidae, native to China, Japan, Korea, and other Asian regions. In September 1998, it was collected in Allentown, Pennsylvania, where it is believed to have been accidentally introduced. The nymphs and adults of the brown marmorated stink bug feed on over 100 species of plants, including many agricultural crops, and by 2010–11 had become a season-long pest in orchards in the Eastern United States. In 2010, in the Mid-Atlantic United States, $37 million in apple crops were lost, and some stone fruit growers lost more than 90% of their crops. Since the 2010s, the bug has spread to countries such as Georgia and Turkey and caused extensive damage to hazelnut production. It is now established in many parts of North America, and has recently become established in Europe and South America.
Rhaphigaster nebulosa, common name mottled shieldbug, is a species of stink bug in the family Pentatomidae.
Agriculture is still an important sector of Turkey's economy, and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers. Wheat, sugar beet, milk, poultry, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major products; and Turkey is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts, apricots, and oregano.
Tessaratomidae is a family of true bugs. It contains about 240 species of large bugs divided into 3 subfamilies and 56 genera.
Trissolcus japonicus, the samurai wasp, is a parasitoid wasp species in the family Scelionidae, native to east Asia but now found in Europe, North America, and Chile. It is chiefly known for parasitizing Halyomorpha halys. It deposits eggs into the eggs of the stink bug, and as the wasp larvae develop, they kill the stink bug eggs. A single adult wasp emerges from each stink bug egg.
There is considerable dialectal variation in Turkish.
Proxys punctulatus, the black stink bug, is a species of stink bug in the family Pentatomidae. It is found in the Caribbean Sea, Central America, and North America.
Trissolcus basalis, or the green vegetable bug egg parasitoid, is a parasitoid wasp in the family Platygastridae known primarily for parasitising the horticultural pest Nezara viridula, the green vegetable bug.
2-Decenal (dec-2-enal) is an organic compound with the chemical formula of C10H18O. It exists as a pair of cis and trans isomers, (2E)-2-decenal and (2Z)-2-decenal. It is an oily, clear liquid under normal conditions, that may be yellow due to impurities. 2-Decenal is described as having a strong, waxy odor. It is found in animal food (in trace quantities), and is part of the essential oil of coriander. 2-Decenal is also used as a flavoring agent.
Trissolcus oenone is a parasitoid wasp in the family Platygastridae, native to Australia and New Zealand. It parasitises the eggs of stink bugs (Pentatomidae), but little is known about its biology.
Cuspicona simplex, commonly known as the green potato bug, is a herbivorous species of stink bug native to Australia and introduced to New Zealand. It feeds on nightshades. It is primarily known as a pest of potatoes, tomatoes, and other crops in the nightshade family.
Anastatus bifasciatus is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Eupelmidae. It is native to Europe, and has been harnessed for augmentative biological control against the brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys. The study by Haye et al., 2015 especially demonstrates its effectiveness against the European BMSB invasion. It has also been considered as a biological control agent against spongy moth eggs in North America.