Demographics of Haiti

Demographics of Haiti
Population pyramid of Haiti in 2020
Population	8,812,245 (Last census)
Birth rate	21.12 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Death rate	7.23 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Life expectancy	65.95 years
• male	63.26 years
• female	68.67 years
Fertility rate	2.43 children born/woman (2022 est.)
Infant mortality rate	40.02 deaths/1,000 live births
Net migration rate	-1.88 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Age structure
0–14 years	32.78%
15–64 years	62.49%
65 and over	4.73%
Sex ratio
Total	0.97 male(s)/female (2022 est.)
At birth	1.01 male(s)/female
Under 15	0.99 male(s)/female
65 and over	0.62 male(s)/female
Nationality
Nationality	Haitian
Major ethnic	Blacks (95%) [1]
Minor ethnic	Mulattos and Whites (5%) [1]
Language
Official	French  · Haitian Creole

Population of Haiti (in millions) from 1800 to 2021

Haiti is the 83rd most populous country in the world, with an estimated population of 11,123,178 as of July 2018. ^[2] The last national census in Haiti was done in 2003. Although much of that data has not been released, the population recorded was 8,812,245.

According to population DNA tests,^{[ which? ]} approximately 80% of the population of Haiti is Afro-Haitian.^{[ citation needed ]} Within Black Haitian DNA, according to a study, the composition is approximately 88% African, the rest are European or mixed European. This is evidenced in DNA ancestry read outs where the average Haitian consistently tests at nearly 100 percent sub-Saharan African DNA.

The remaining population of Haiti is primarily composed of Mulattoes, Europeans, Asians, and Arabs. Hispanic residents in Haiti are mostly Cuban and Dominican.

About two-thirds of Haitian people live in rural areas. Several demographic studies, including those by social work researcher Athena Kolbe, have provided estimates of the demographic information of urban residents. In 2006, each Haitian household had an average of 4.5 members.

Population of Haiti

According to the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects ^{[3] [4]} the total population of Haiti in 2018 was 11,447,569, as compared to 3,221,000 in 1950. In 2015, the proportion of children below the age of 15 was 36.2%. 59.7% of the population was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 4.5% was 65 years or older. ^[5] According to the World Bank, Haiti's dependency rate is 7.51 dependents per 100 working age persons. ^[6]

	Total population	Proportion aged 0–14 (%)	Proportion aged 15–64 (%)	Proportion aged 65+ (%)
1950	3 221 000	39.6	56.7	3.7
1955	3 516 000	39.7	56.9	3.4
1960	3 869 000	40.3	56.5	3.2
1965	4 275 000	41.7	54.9	3.4
1970	4 713 000	41.8	54.5	3.7
1975	5 144 000	41.3	54.8	3.9
1980	5 692 000	41.1	54.9	4.0
1985	6 389 000	42.2	53.8	4.0
1990	7 110 000	43.1	52.9	4.0
1995	7 838 000	42.6	53.5	3.9
2000	8 578 000	40.3	55.7	4.0
2005	9 261 000	38.1	57.8	4.2
2010	10,085,214	36.2	59.7	4.5

Structure of the population

Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2010) (Projections produced by l’Institut Haïtien de Statistique et d’Informatique (IHSI) and the Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE) - Population Division of ECLAC.): ^[7]

Age Group	Male	Female	Total	%
Total	4 993 731	5 091 483	10 085 214	100
0–4	644 550	618 772	1 263 322	12.53
5–9	608 495	586 984	1 195 479	11.85
10–14	588 618	569 860	1 158 478	11.49
15–19	551 467	540 897	1 092 364	10.83
20–24	509 042	510 547	1 019 589	10.11
25–29	454 123	465 513	919 636	9.12
30–34	340 518	362 078	702 596	6.97
35–39	261 157	286 847	548 004	5.43
40–44	235 182	253 300	488 482	4.84
45–49	204 077	219 300	423 377	4.20
50–54	166 418	176 495	342 913	3.40
55–59	136 034	148 697	284 731	2.82
60–64	95 939	110 896	206 835	2.05
65–69	81 854	94 044	175 898	1.74
70–74	58 181	71 255	129 436	1.28
75–79	35 538	45 360	80 898	0.80
80+	22 538	30 638	53 176	0.53
Age group	Male	Female	Total	Percent
0–14	1 841 663	1 775 999	3 617 229	35.87
15–64	2 953 957	3 074 620	6 028 577	59.78
65+	198 111	241 297	439 408	4.36

Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2011) (Projections produced by l’Institut Haïtien de Statistique et d’Informatique (IHSI) and the Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE) - Population Division of ECLAC.): ^[8]

Age Group	Male	Female	Total	%
Total	5 075 517	5 172 789	10 248 306	100
0–4	647 465	621 432	1 268 897	12.38
5–9	611 472	589 690	1 201 161	11.72
10–14	591 018	572 066	1 163 085	11.35
15–19	556 085	544 798	1 100 883	10.74
20–24	514 235	514 898	1 029 132	10.04
25–29	465 396	475 451	940 847	9.18
30–34	358 927	379 066	737 993	7.20
35–39	270 574	296 362	566 936	5.53
40–44	237 754	257 273	495 026	4.83
45–49	208 671	224 746	433 416	4.23
50–54	171 468	182 332	353 800	3.45
55–59	140 392	152 742	293 134	2.86
60–64	99 846	114 973	214 819	2.10
65–69	82 201	94 868	177 069	1.73
70–74	59 833	72 957	132 790	1.30
75–79	36 751	47 083	83 834	0.82
80+	23 431	32 053	55 484	0.54
Age group	Male	Female	Total	Percent
0–14	1 849 955	1 783 188	3 633 143	35.45
15–64	3 023 346	3 142 640	6 165 986	60.17
65+	202 216	246 961	449 177	4.38

Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2018) (Projections produced by l’Institut Haïtien de Statistique et d’Informatique (IHSI) and the Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE) - Population Division of ECLAC.): ^[8]

Age Group	Male	Female	Total	%
Total	5 659 140	5 752 387	11 411 527	100
0–4	661 535	634 371	1 295 906	11.36
5–9	635 927	611 692	1 247 619	10.93
10–14	608 695	588 396	1 197 091	10.49
15–19	580 801	565 986	1 146 787	10.05
20–24	547 618	542 296	1 089 914	9.55
25–29	504 926	508 355	1 013 281	8.88
30–34	463 541	473 269	936 810	8.21
35–39	387 698	405 499	793 197	6.95
40–44	285 013	309 823	594 836	5.21
45–49	230 537	254 629	485 166	4.25
50–54	206 255	224 859	431 114	3.78
55–59	170 991	186 498	357 489	3.13
60–64	134 300	148 115	282 415	2.47
65–69	97 454	113 753	211 207	1.85
70–74	66 084	80 979	147 063	1.29
75–79	46 188	58 733	104 921	0.92
80+	31 576	45 134	76 710	0.67
Age group	Male	Female	Total	Percent
0–14	1 906 157	1 834 459	3 740 616	32.78
15–64	3 511 681	3 619 329	7 131 010	62.49
65+	241 302	298 599	539 901	4.73

Vital statistics

The registration of vital events in Haiti is incomplete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates. Population estimates account for under numeration in population censuses. ^[9]

	Mid-year population (thousands)	Live births (thousands)	Deaths (thousands)	Natural change (thousands)	Crude birth rate (per 1000)	Crude death rate (per 1000)	Natural change (per 1000)	Total fertility rate (TFR)	Infant mortality (per 1000 live births)	Life expectancy (in years)
1950	3 247	151	87	63	46.3	26.8	19.5	6.25	248.2	37.48
1951	3 302	152	87	65	46.0	26.4	19.6	6.24	243.7	37.91
1952	3 359	154	86	68	45.8	25.5	20.2	6.24	235.1	38.83
1953	3 419	156	85	71	45.5	24.7	20.7	6.23	227.1	39.70
1954	3 481	157	84	73	45.2	24.1	21.0	6.22	220.0	40.29
1955	3 546	160	83	77	45.0	23.3	21.7	6.23	212.9	41.26
1956	3 614	162	82	80	44.8	22.7	22.1	6.23	206.9	41.96
1957	3 684	163	82	81	44.3	22.3	22.0	6.20	203.4	42.36
1958	3 755	166	83	84	44.2	21.9	22.3	6.22	199.8	42.77
1959	3 828	169	83	86	44.0	21.6	22.4	6.23	196.6	43.12
1960	3 901	170	83	87	43.6	21.3	22.3	6.21	193.3	43.50
1961	3 975	173	83	89	43.3	20.9	22.4	6.20	190.1	43.91
1962	4 050	175	83	91	43.0	20.6	22.5	6.19	187.0	44.29
1963	4 122	177	89	87	42.8	21.6	21.2	6.18	188.4	42.77
1964	4 196	179	84	95	42.5	19.9	22.6	6.18	181.0	44.97
1965	4 274	180	84	96	42.0	19.6	22.4	6.12	178.0	45.35
1966	4 353	181	84	97	41.5	19.4	22.1	6.07	175.2	45.59
1967	4 433	183	84	99	41.1	18.9	22.2	6.03	171.8	46.13
1968	4 514	184	84	100	40.7	18.6	22.1	5.97	168.5	46.51
1969	4 597	186	84	102	40.3	18.3	22.1	5.93	165.2	46.92
1970	4 681	188	84	103	40.0	17.9	22.0	5.87	162.0	47.34
1971	4 766	189	84	105	39.6	17.6	21.9	5.80	158.6	47.72
1972	4 853	191	85	106	39.2	17.4	21.8	5.72	155.3	47.95
1973	4 941	192	85	107	38.8	17.2	21.6	5.65	151.6	48.21
1974	5 031	197	86	111	39.0	17.1	21.9	5.66	148.0	48.42
1975	5 125	202	87	115	39.3	17.0	22.3	5.69	144.6	48.68
1976	5 222	207	88	119	39.5	16.9	22.7	5.69	141.0	48.96
1977	5 324	212	89	123	39.8	16.7	23.0	5.68	137.7	49.21
1978	5 429	217	91	126	39.8	16.6	23.2	5.67	134.4	49.43
1979	5 536	222	92	130	39.9	16.5	23.4	5.67	131.3	49.68
1980	5 647	226	93	133	40.0	16.4	23.6	5.65	128.4	49.90
1981	5 760	231	93	138	40.1	16.1	23.9	5.67	125.4	50.27
1982	5 878	237	94	143	40.2	16.0	24.2	5.70	122.4	50.55
1983	5 998	239	95	145	39.8	15.7	24.1	5.66	119.5	50.87
1984	6 120	243	95	148	39.6	15.5	24.1	5.63	116.8	51.12
1985	6 246	248	95	153	39.6	15.2	24.4	5.62	114.0	51.52
1986	6 375	252	96	157	39.5	15.0	24.5	5.61	111.3	51.88
1987	6 508	257	96	161	39.3	14.7	24.6	5.59	108.4	52.24
1988	6 645	260	96	164	39.0	14.4	24.6	5.57	105.8	52.63
1989	6 784	263	97	166	38.7	14.2	24.4	5.53	103.2	52.76
1990	6 925	266	97	168	38.3	14.0	24.2	5.48	100.7	52.98
1991	7 066	262	97	166	37.1	13.7	23.4	5.32	98.0	53.39
1992	7 206	262	96	167	36.4	13.3	23.1	5.21	95.3	53.84
1993	7 346	262	95	167	35.6	12.9	22.7	5.10	92.6	54.35
1994	7 486	262	95	167	34.9	12.6	22.3	4.99	90.5	54.65
1995	7 627	262	92	170	34.2	12.0	22.2	4.88	87.2	55.55
1996	7 771	262	91	172	33.7	11.6	22.0	4.78	84.5	56.15
1997	7 915	263	90	173	33.2	11.4	21.8	4.67	81.7	56.52
1998	8 061	263	89	174	32.6	11.0	21.5	4.56	79.3	57.14
1999	8 209	264	87	177	32.1	10.6	21.5	4.45	76.7	57.96
2000	8 360	267	87	180	31.8	10.3	21.5	4.39	74.4	58.37
2001	8 512	264	87	177	31.0	10.2	20.8	4.25	72.2	58.49
2002	8 662	263	87	176	30.3	10.0	20.3	4.13	70.2	58.86
2003	8 812	264	86	178	29.9	9.7	20.2	4.04	68.4	59.51
2004	8 961	264	91	173	29.5	10.2	19.3	3.94	70.7	58.48
2005	9 112	265	84	180	29.0	9.2	19.8	3.83	65.2	60.42
2006	9 266	266	84	181	28.6	9.1	19.5	3.74	63.8	60.76
2007	9 421	266	84	182	28.2	8.9	19.2	3.64	62.6	61.10
2008	9 575	267	85	182	27.8	8.9	19.0	3.57	61.4	61.33
2009	9 731	269	85	184	27.6	8.7	18.9	3.51	59.9	61.74
2010	9 843	271	175	96	27.5	17.7	9.8	3.47	75.9	46.02
2011	9 954	271	87	184	27.2	8.8	18.4	3.41	58.3	61.62
2012	10 109	269	86	183	26.6	8.5	18.1	3.30	56.7	62.29
2013	10 261	268	86	182	26.1	8.4	17.7	3.22	55.3	62.61
2014	10 413	269	86	183	25.8	8.2	17.5	3.16	54.1	62.99
2015	10 564	270	87	183	25.5	8.2	17.3	3.11	52.8	63.24
2016	10 714	271	88	183	25.3	8.2	17.1	3.06	51.8	63.39
2017	10 864	272	87	185	25.0	8.0	17.0	3.02	50.2	63.85
2018	11 012	271	88	183	24.6	8.0	16.6	2.96	48.9	64.02
2019	11 160	272	89	183	24.3	8.0	16.4	2.92	47.8	64.26
2020	11 307	271	93	178	23.9	8.2	15.8	2.87	46.7	64.05
2021	11 448	269	99	170	23.5	8.7	14.8	2.81	46.0	63.19

While limited, some evidence suggests that large scale disasters can cause human populations to increase in the long term, rather than decrease. ^[10] Accordingly, in Haiti's case, some sources reported that a tripled fertility rate was expected after the 2010 Haiti earthquake. ^[11] However, data since then does not show a diversion from the pre-disaster trend of decreasing fertility rates.

Births and deaths

Year	Population	Live births	Deaths	Natural increase	Crude birth rate	Crude death rate	Rate of natural increase	TFR
2005	9,292,282	~258,325	~87,347	~170,978	27.8	9.4	18.4	3.5
2006	9,445,412	~258,804	~87,842	~170,962	27.4	9.3	18.2	3.4
2007	9,602,305	~260,222	~87,381	~172,841	27.1	9.1	18.0	3.4
2008	9,761,929	~260,644	~87,857	~172,787	26.7	9.0	17.7	3.3
2009	9,923,243	~261,874	~87,325	~174,549	26.4	8.8	17.6	3.3
2010	10,085,216	~262,216	~200,000	~62,216	26.0	19.8	6.2	3.2
2011	10,248,306	~265,431	~88,135	~177,296	25.9	8.6	17.3
2012	10,413,211	~267,620	~88,512	~179,108	25.7	8.5	17.2	3.2
2013	10,579,230	~247,025	~84,634	~162,391	23.35	8	15.35	2.88

Number of births and deaths are calculated based on Crude Birth and Death Rates. ^[12]

Fertility and births

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): ^[13]

Year	CBR (Total)	TFR (Total)	CBR (Urban)	TFR (Urban)	CBR (Rural)	TFR (Rural)
1994–95	34	4.8 (3.0)	31	3.3 (2.2)	35	5.9 (3.7)
2000	32.6	4.7 (2.7)	29.4	3.3 (2.0)	34.0	5.8 (3.4)
2005–2006	28.7	4.0 (2.4)	26.2	2.8 (1.8)	30.1	5.0 (2.9)
2012	27.8	3.5 (2.2)	24.4	2.6 (1.9)	29.4	4.4 (2.6)
2016–17	24.3	3.0 (1.9)	21.1	2.1 (1.5)	26.3	3.9 (2.3)

Other sources of demographic statistics

Demographic statistics below are based on the 2022 World Population Review. ^[14]

• One birth every 2 minutes
• One death every 5 minutes
• One net migrant every 16 minutes
• Net gain of one person every 4 minutes

Demographic statistics below are based on the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. ^[15]

Population

11,334,637 (2022 est.)

10,788,440 (July 2018 est.)

Ethnic composition

Black 95%, mixed and White 5%

Age structure

Population pyramid of Haiti in 2020

Haiti's population pyramid can be categorized as "expansive," indicating a growing population. However, it is categorized as being at stage 3 of demographic transition, as the birth and death rate are falling and net population is increasing at a slower rate.

0-14 years: 31.21% (male 1,719,961/female 1,734,566)

15-24 years: 20.71% (male 1,145,113/female 1,146,741)

25-54 years: 38.45% (male 2,110,294/female 2,145,209)

55-64 years: 5.3% (male 280,630/female 305,584)

65 years and over: 4.33% (2020 est.) (male 210,451/female 269,228)

0-14 years: 32.27% (male 1,733,920 / female 1,747,387)

15-24 years: 21.11% (male 1,139,188 / female 1,137,754)

25-54 years: 37.32% (male 1,997,816 / female 2,028,495)

55-64 years: 5.1% (male 262,494 / female 287,515)

65 years and over: 4.21% (male 199,617 / female 254,254) (2018 est.)

Birth rate

21.12 births/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 65th

22.6 births/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country ranking: 65/195

Death rate

7.23 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 113rd

7.5 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 111st

Total fertility rate

2.43 children born/woman (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 72nd

2.66 children born/woman (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 65th

Net migration rate

-1.88 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 169th

-2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 163rd

Population growth rate

1.2% (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 77th

1.31% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 84th

Median age

total: 24.1 years. Country comparison to the world: 167th male: 23.8 years female: 24.3 years (2020 est.)

Total: 23.3 years. Country ranking: 172/195

Male: 23.1 years

Female: 23.6 years (2018 est.)

Mother's mean age at first birth

22.8 years (2016/7 est.)

note: median age at first birth among women 25-29

Contraceptive prevalence rate

34.3% (2016/17)

Dependency ratios

total dependency ratio: 62.3 (2015 est.)

youth dependency ratio: 54.8 (2015 est.)

elderly dependency ratio: 7.5 (2015 est.)

potential support ratio: 13.3 (2015 est.)

Life expectancy at birth

Life expectancy at birth in Haiti

total population: 64.6 years

male: 61.9 years

female: 67.2 years (2018 est.)

Urbanization

urban population: 58.8% of total population (2022)

rate of urbanization: 2.47% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)

urban population: 55.3% of total population (2018)

rate of urbanization: 2.9% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.)

Religions

Catholic 55%, Protestant 29%, Vodou 2.1%, other 4.6%, none 10% (2018 est.)

note: 50-80% of Haitians incorporate some elements of Vodou culture or practice in addition to another religion, most often Roman Catholicism; Vodou was recognized as an official religion in 2003

Education expenditures

1.7% of GDP (2018) Country comparison to the world: 183rd

2.4% of GDP (2016) Country comparison to the world: 162nd

Literacy

Definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.)

total population: 61.7%

male: 65.3%

female: 58.3% (2016)

Major infectious diseases

degree of risk: very high (2020)

food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever

vectorborne diseases: dengue fever and malaria

Languages

Taíno was the major pre-Columbian language in the region of what is Haiti (or Ayti), a name referring to the entire island of Hispaniola. ^{[16] [17]} The phrase means "land of high mountains." ^[18]

Today, the Republic of Haiti has two official languages, French and Haitian Creole. Haitian Creole is a French-based creole with 90% of its vocabulary derived from or influenced by Portuguese, Spanish, Taíno, and various West African languages. ^[19] French is the primary written and administrative language (as well as the main language of the press) and is spoken by 42% of Haitians. ^{[20] [21]} The language is generally spoken by educated Haitians, is the medium of instruction in most schools, and is used in the business sector. It is also spoken in ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations, and church masses.

Haiti is one of two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) to designate French as an official language; other French-speaking areas are all overseas départements , or collectivités, of France. Haitian Creole, ^[22] which was recently standardized, is spoken by virtually the entire population of Haiti. ^[23] It is related to the other French creoles but most closely to the Antillean Creole and Louisiana Creole variants.

Spanish is spoken by some Haitians along the border with the Dominican Republic, as well as by some who have been deported from Spanish-speaking countries. English is used increasingly within the business sector, but only by a small proportion of the total population. ^[24]

Religion

Main articles: Religion in Haiti and Haitian Vodou

The most common religions in Haiti are Roman Catholicism, Pentecostalism and Baptist. The state religion is Roman Catholicism, which is professed by 55–60% of the population. 30–35% of Haitians practice Protestantism, mostly Pentecostalism, which arrived in Haiti in the 1970s. ^[15] Almost 99% of Haitians claim to be a part of at least one religion, with a fraction of them practicing some part of Vodou along with another religion. ^[25]

Vodou bears similarities to Cuban Santeria due to the large Cuban population in Haiti. ^[26] The practice of Vodou revolves around family spirits called Lwa that protect children. To repay the spirits, children perform two ceremonies where the Lwa are given gifts like food and drinks. The timing of the ceremonies depends on the monetary status of the family performing them; poorer families try to save money, waiting until there is a need to perform the rituals. ^[27] The practice of Vodou is rare among the urban elite.

Modern day Vodou has been shaped by both Protestant and Catholic Christianity. Under the rule of the Catholic French, the population was not allowed to practice Vodou. However, they were occasionally allowed to have dances on the weekends. These dances were actually disguised Vodou services. The underground practice of Vodou continued until Haiti gained its independence in 1804. Most Haitians see practicing both Vodou and Christianity as normal due to their significant similarities. The Catholic Church, however, was not always as accepting of Vodou. In 1941–42, a holy war was declared against Vodou, leading to the deaths of many high level religious officials in the Vodou religion. Persecution of the religion largely ended in 1950 when the Catholics gave up trying to prosecute those who practiced Vodou. Protestants, however, are still critical of the religion, often describing it as "devil worship". ^[28]

A fictionalized version of Vodou, commonly called "voodoo", has been used in American movies and by authors such as H.P. Lovecraft. Vodou and voodoo are not conceptually the same, although the idea of "voodoo" lives on in American pop culture. ^[29]

Education

Main article: Education in Haiti

Although public education in Haiti at the primary level is free, private and parochial schools provide around 75% of educational programs offered to the public.

In recent years, several literacy campaigns launched by the Martelly administration have increased adult literacy in Haiti. ^[30] UNESCO projects an overall literacy rate of 61.1% in Haiti by 2015. ^[31]

As of December 2014, the World Bank has reported an increase in school enrollment from 78% to 90% in Haiti, close to the federal goal of universal child enrollment. ^[32]

Labor

In 2004, approximately 300,000 children were restavecs, or indentured servants. ^[33]

Emigration

Large-scale emigration, principally to the Dominican Republic, United States, and Canada (predominantly to Quebec) has created what Haitians refer to as the Eleventh Department or the Diaspora. Significant numbers of Haitians have also immigrated to Cuba, France and French Guiana, Spain, Belgium, the United Kingdom and Ireland, Venezuela, Brazil, Chile, the Bahamas and other Caribbean countries. Approximately one in every six Haitians lives abroad. ^[34]

Immigration

45,000 Americans live in Haiti. They represent 0.4% of Haiti's total population. ^[35]

References

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16. Guitar, Lynne; Ferbel-Azcárate, Pedro; Estevez, Jorge (2006). "iii: Ocama-Daca Taíno (Hear me, I am Taíno)". Indigenous Resurgence in the Contemporary Caribbean. New York: Peter Lang Publishing. p. 41. ISBN   0-8204-7488-6. LCCN   2005012816 . Retrieved 10 July 2015.
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21. À ce propos, voir l'essai Prétendus Créolismes : le couteau dans l'igname, Jean-Robert Léonidas, Cidihca, Montréal 1995
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34. IBP, Inc (August 2013). Haiti Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments, Volume 1. Lulu.com, 2013. p. 106. ISBN   978-1438774565.{{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
35. Jr, James C. Mckinley; Skipp, Catharine (18 January 2010). "For 45,000 Americans in Haiti, the Quake Was 'a Nightmare That's Not Ending' - The New York Times". The New York Times.