Ethiopian Jews in Israel are immigrants and descendants of the immigrants from the Beta Israel communities in Ethiopia who now reside in Israel.[2][3][4] To a lesser, but notable, extent, the Ethiopian Jewish community in Israel is also composed of Falash Mura, a community of Beta Israel which had converted to Christianity over the course of the past two centuries, but were permitted to immigrate to Israel upon returning to Israelite religion—this time largely to Rabbinic Judaism.[5][6]
Most of the community made aliyah from Ethiopia to Israel in two waves of mass immigration assisted by the Israeli government: Operation Moses (1984), and Operation Solomon (1991).[7][8] Today, Israel is home to the largest Beta Israel community in the world, with about 168,800 citizens of Ethiopian descent in 2022, who mainly reside in southern and central Israel.[9]
An Ethiopian Jew prays during a break while on patrol on the outskirts of Bethlehem, Jan 1996.
Between the years 1963 and 1975, a relatively small group of Beta Israel emigrated to Israel. The Beta Israel immigrants during that period were mainly men who had studied and come to Israel on a tourist visa, and then remained in the country illegally sheltered by Rabbis.
Several of their supporters in Israel and America and the Jewish Defense League, who recognized their Jewish identity, helped assist their immigration to Israel by signing petitions, protests and seeking influential people in both the Rabbinical and Government to help push their immigration to Israel.
The spark of supporters from the American Jews occurred when Rabbi Kaplan participated in a mission to Ethiopia. During the visit, the group came across an isolated village inhabited by Beta Israel.Through the help of a translator, Brett Goldberg, members of the group talked with residents of the village. Rabbi Kaplan asked if there was a Kahen. There was, and later in the day, after the Kahen returned, the two religious leaders had a lively conversation (p.56-57).
"Rabbi Kaplan was astounded when the Kahen told him that the Parashah (portion of the Bible) that he was going to read in his synagogue that Sabbath, was exactly the same parsha that was being read that Sabbath in Rabbi Kaplan's Synagogue. Imagine, after being isolated for centuries, the Beta Yisrael priests in the plateaus deep in Ethiopia were in sync with the rest of world Jewry!
This remarkable and moving story had to be told. At our request, Rabbi Kaplan wrote an article so that the AAE) could distribute it through a mailing list of Jewish newspapers and magazines. This report of a conversation between a contemporary American rabbi and a Beta Yisrael Kahen in the high plateaus of Ethiopia was simple, clear and compelling. It probably did more to help American Jews identify with the Ethiopian Jews than all of the pronouncements by the chief rabbis." This story led to Hundreds of thousands of signatures in support of making haste of the Ethiopian Jews doing Aliyah.[11][12]
In 1973, Sergeant Major Ovadia Hazzi officially raised the question of the Beta Israel with Israel's Sephardi Chief Rabbi Ovadia Yosef. The rabbi, citing a rabbinic ruling the Radbaz, Rabbi Azriel Hildesheimer, and two former Ashkenazic chief rabbis of Israel, Abraham Isaac Kook and Isaac Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog, On February 9, 1973, Sephardic Chief Rabbi Ovadia Yosef had ruled that "The Beta Yisrael are Jews according to Halachah and is "our duty to redeem them from assimilation, to hasten their immigration to Israel, to educate them in the spirit of our holy Torah and to make them partners in the building of our sacred land....I am certain that the government institutions and the Jewish Agency, as well as organizations in Israel and the Diaspora, will help us to the best of our ability in this holy task..., the Mitzvah of redeeming the souls of our people...for everyone who saves one soul in Israel, it is as though he had saved the whole world.[12] In 1974 the question was raised to the Ashkenazic Rabbi Shlomo Goren and he expressed the Ethiopian Jews are a part of the Jewish people and stated they are a part of the Jewish people because Chief Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook said so, implying that there was no need to rule them as jews as they had already been ruled as Jews according to Halakha,[11] and said that he has for a long time had a messianic vision for their return to Israel.[11]
In April 1975, the Israeli government of Yitzhak Rabin officially accepted the Beta Israel as Jews for the purpose of the Law of Return (an Israeli act which grants all the Jews in the world the same right to immigrate to Israel).
Later on, Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin obtained clear rulings from Chief Sephardi Rabbi Ovadia Yosef that they were descendants of The Tribes of Israel. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel did, however, in the beginning required them to undergo pro formaSymbolic Circumcision symbolising requiring a drop of blood symbolising they were "Rejoining the Jewish people".[13] However this was disagreed upon as they had already been ruled as "Authentic Jews" and due to fears of it being used to converting them to Sephardic Judaism and several other factors. Hence Rabbi Goren made concessions with the Prime Minister Menachem Begin to stop the ceremony for future immigrants.[14]
From 1975 onwards, the majority of the Ethiopian Jews made Aliyah as they had qualified under the 1950 Law of Return under Yitzhak Rabin after being pressured by the Rabbinate to do so. Hence commenced the Third Wave, when Aliyah activists and Israel's Mossad agents carried out several operations and missions to take them out of Ethiopia.[14][13]
Third wave: (1975–1990)
Operation Brothers
Migration map of Beta Israel
November 1979 – 1983: Aliyah activists and Mossad agents operating in Sudan, including Ferede Aklum, called the Beta Israel to come to Sudan where they would eventually be taken to Israel via Europe. Jewish Ethiopian refugees from the Ethiopian Civil War in the mid-1970s began to arrive at the refugee camps in Sudan. Most Beta Israel came from Tigray, which was then controlled by the TPLF, which often escorted them to the Sudanese border.[15] Many Ethiopian Jews also immigrated to Israel to flee from the civil war, famine during and after the war, as well as hostility toward Ethiopian Jews.[16] In 1981, the Jewish Defense League protested against the "lack of action" to rescue Ethiopian Jews by taking over the main offices of HIAS in Manhattan.[17]
1983 – March 28, 1985: this emigration wave was in part motivated by word of mouth reports on the success of the emigration of many Jewish refugees to Israel. In 1983, the governor of Gondar region, Major Melaku Teferra, was ousted as governor and his successor removed restrictions on travel.[18] Beta Israel began to arrive in large numbers and the Mossad was unable to evacuate them in time. Due to poor conditions in the camps, many refugees died of disease and hunger. Of these victims, it is estimated that between 2,000 and 5,000 were Beta Israel.[19] In late 1984, the Sudanese government, following the intervention of the United States, allowed the emigration of 7,200 Beta Israel refugees to Europe. They immediately flew from there to Israel. The first of two operations during this period was Operation Moses (original name: "The Lion of Judah's Cub"), which took place between November 20, 1984, and January 20, 1985, during which time 6,500 people emigrated to Israel. A few weeks later, the U.S. Air Force evacuated the 494 Beta Israel refugees remaining in Sudan to Israel in Operation Joshua. The second operation was mainly carried out due to the intervention and international pressure of the United States.[citation needed]
1991 (Operation Solomon): In 1991, the political and economic stability of Ethiopia deteriorated as rebels mounted attacks against, and eventually controlled, the capital city of Addis Ababa. Worried about the fate of the Beta Israel during the transition period, the Israeli government, together with several private groups, secretly prepared to continue with the migration. Over the course of the next 36 hours, a total of 34 El Alpassenger planes, with their seats removed to maximize passenger capacity, flew 14,325 Beta Israel directly to Israel. Again, the operation was mainly carried out due to the intervention and international pressure of the U.S. Dr. Rick Hodes, an American doctor who emigrated to Ethiopia, was the medical director for Operation Solomon. It was a difficult two days as he covertly arranged for a number of very ill people to be air-lifted to Israel.[citation needed]
1992–1999: During these years, the Qwara Beta Israel emigrated to Israel.[citation needed]
Falash Mura (1993–present)
1993–present: From 1993 onwards, an irregular emigration began of Falash Mura, which was and still is mainly subjected to political developments in Israel. These immigrants are required to convert from Christianity to Judaism.[20]
2018: In August 2018, the Netanyahu government vowed to bring in 1,000 Falasha Jews from Ethiopia.[21]
2019: In April 2019, an estimated 8,000 Falasha were waiting to leave Ethiopia.[22]
2020: On February 25, 2020, 43 Falasha arrived in Israel from Ethiopia.[23]
29 November 2020 - 12 July 2023: Operation Tzur Israel (Rock of Israel). The operation was implemented in two phases with the goal of facilitating the immigration of 5,000 Ethiopian Jews to Israel, most of whom had close relatives already living there. The first phase, which ran from 28 November 2020 until March 15, 2021, brought 2,000 Ethiopian immigrants to Israel. The second phase, which began on June 2, 2022, brought another 3,000 immigrants, and concluded on 12 July 2023.[24][25][26]
2021:
March 11: Operation Tzur Israel brings 300 Ethiopian Jews to Israel.[27]
March 15: The first phase of the operation concludes, with 2,000 immigrants brought to Israel.[28]
November 14: Falasha in Israel stage a protest so their relatives left behind in Ethiopia can go to Israel.[29]
November 28: The Israeli government approves the resumption of immigration for the remainder of the community from Ethiopia.[30]
2022:
February 2: The Israeli Supreme Court issues an interim order halting the immigration of 3,000 Ethiopians with close relatives in Israel, while hearing an appeal alleging many of them had faked their claims of Jewish ancestry.[31]
June 1: Second phase of operation begins with an airlift of 181 immigrants.[33]
2023:
July 12: Operation Tzur Israel concludes with a final flight of 130 immigrants.[25]
2024: In July 2024, the Jewish Federations of North America (JFNA) announced the completion of a $9 million, two-year campaign to help Ethiopian immigrants, or olim, move to Israel. The campaign, which is part of "Operation Tzur Israel" ("Operation Rock of Israel"), helped 3,170 Ethiopians make aliyah, including 1,535 men, 1,635 women, and 754 families. Many of the immigrants were young, with 35% aged 18 to 35 and 39% under 18. The campaign also provided food and medicine to thousands of people in Addis Ababa and Gondar. With the support of JFNA, more than 100,000 Ethiopians have now made aliyah.[34][non-primary source needed]
Integration and socioeconomic status
Beta Israel soldier in Nablus, 2006The entrance to Mevaseret Zion Absorption Center, 2010
The biggest challenge to the Israeli Ethiopian Beta Israel community probably lies in the low level of formal education of most of the immigrants who mostly had no useful training for a developed economy like that of Israel and due to the nature of rural living in Ethiopia, illiteracy was very common although young people were better educated, Therefore, the extremely abrupt transition from village life in Ethiopia to Israel, has been accompanied by adjustment crises which in turn greatly affected their integration into Israeli society.[citation needed]
Despite those challenges, large improvement has been made in terms of educational attainment and socio-economic status in recent years and progress is being made on several fronts.[35]
In 2022 the net income per household among Israelis of Ethiopian descent amounted to 14,676 NIS, compared to 18,237 NIS for all Jewish households and 11,810 NIS for Arab households. This income gap between Israelis of Ethiopian origin the overall population has narrowed from 44% in 2014 to 20% in 2022.
The unemployment rate among Ethiopian adults was high in the past, and in 2005 it was 65% among those aged 40 and over, but today it has decreased significantly and is lower than the unemployment rate in the general Israeli population
In 2018, Israelis of Ethiopian descent made up 2.5% of all income support claimants in Israel - slightly more than their representation in the population, which is close to 2%.
In 2022/3, the percentage of 12th-grade students of Ethiopian descent taking matriculation exams was 93.4%, compared with 95.2% of the students in the Hebrew education system overall.The rate of eligibility for a Bagrut certificate among 12th grade students of Ethiopian descent is 77.7%(compared to 85.6% in the Hebrew education sector and 74.5% in the Arab education sector) and has been on the rise in recent years (it was 62% in 2018 and 53% in 2013).[36] The rate of eligibility for a matriculation certificate that meets the threshold requirements of the universities among 12th grade students of Ethiopian descent is 59.2% compared to 76% in the Hebrew education system overall (excluding ultra-Orthodox supervision) and 51.3% in the Arab education sector. the percentage of students of Ethiopian descent eligible for a matriculation certificate that meets university entrance requirements has also been increasing in recent years, and the gap between them and the general Hebrew-speaking students has narrowed from 27 percentage points in 2016 to 17 in 2022/3.[37] this gap is still high in comparison to the gap in matriculation certificate eligibility.
The number of students of Ethiopian origin studying at institutions of higher education has been increasing in recent years: from 3,194 in 2016/17 to 4,144 in 2023/24, an increase of 29.7%. In general, the student population increased by 3.9% – from 227,700 in 2016/17 to 235,500 in 2023/24.
The percentage of women among Ethiopian students was higher than the corresponding percentage among the general Hebrew speaking student population .
Ethiopian Beta Israel are gradually becoming part of the mainstream Israeli society in religious life, military service (with nearly all males doing national service), education, and politics. Similarly to other groups of immigrant Jews, who made aliyah to Israel, the Ethiopian Beta Israel have faced obstacles in their integration to Israeli society. The Ethiopian Beta Israel community's internal challenges have been complicated by: entering a relatively modern country (Israel) from non-modern, rural, remote regions of Ethiopia (compared with other immigrant groups entering from industrialized countries, and who typically possess significantly greater formal education); the disruption of long-standing hierarchies and customs within Beta Israel in which elders lead and guide their community; racial prejudice; and a degree of lingering doubt within a minority of groups regarding the "Jewishness" of certain Ethiopians (e. g., the Falash Mura). However, with successive generations, Ethiopian Israelis have climbed in Israeli society.
Individual Ethiopian Beta Israel had lived in Eretz Yisrael prior to the establishment of the state. A youth group arrived in Israel in the 1950s to undergo training in Hebrew education, and returned to Ethiopia to educate young Beta Israeli community members there. Also, Ethiopian Beta Israel had been trickling into Israel prior to the 1970s. The numbers of such Ethiopian immigrants grew after the Israeli government officially recognized them in 1973 as Jews, entitled to Israeli citizenship.[1]
To prepare for the absorption of tens of thousands of Ethiopian Beta Israel, the State of Israel prepared two "Master Plans" (Ministry of Absorption, 1985, 1991). The first was prepared in 1985, a year after the arrival of the first wave of immigrants. The second updated the first in response to the second wave of immigration in 1991 from Ethiopia. The first Master Plan contained an elaborate and detailed program. It covered issues of housing, education, employment, and practical organization, together with policy guidelines regarding specific groups, including women, youths, and single-parent families. Like earlier absorption policies, it adopted a procedural approach which assumed that the immigrants were broadly similar to the existing majority population of Israel. The Plans were created with a firm belief in assimilation. As noted in this section, results have been disappointing, and suggest that much greater attention needs to be paid to issues of ethnicity.[2]
According to a 1999 BBC article, a report commissioned by Israel's Ministry of Immigrant Absorption stated that 75% of the 70,000 Ethiopian Beta Israel community, living in Israel in 1999 could not read or write Hebrew. More than half the population could not hold a simple conversation in the Hebrew language. Unlike Russian immigrants, many of whom arrived with job skills, Ethiopians came from a subsistence economy and were ill-prepared to work in an industrialized society. Since then, much progress has been made. Through military service, most Ethiopian Beta Israel have been able to increase their chances for better opportunities.[3] Today, most Ethiopian Beta Israel have been for the most part integrated into Israeli society; however, a high drop-out rate is a problem, although a higher number are now edging towards the higher areas of society. [citation needed]
In September 2006, the Israeli government's proposed 2007 budget included reducing Ethiopian immigration from 600 persons per month to 150. On the eve of the Knesset vote, the Prime Minister's office announced that the plan had been dropped. Advocates for the Falash Mura noted that although the quota was set at 600 per month in March 2005, actual immigration has remained at 300 per month.[4]
The first contact with Israel generally led to a culture shock amongst many of the new immigrants. Many of the Beta Israel immigrants, especially those who came from remote villages in Ethiopia, had never used electricity, elevators, flush toilets, or televisions. In addition, the adaptation to the Israeli cuisine was difficult. [citation needed]
The break-up of many of the close and extended families after being brought to the various integration centers in Israel, as well as the initial integration with the Israeli society was very difficult for many of the new immigrants. Name-changing also caused a symbolic break with the new immigrants' past. The Israeli authorities originally gave many of the new immigrants Hebrew given names, Hebrew names, and required them all to have family names, which did not exist in the Ethiopian society. These name-changes created a two-tier system, in which old and new names were used by the new immigrants. The immersion with the Hebrew language was not easy for the new immigrants, and the majority of the new immigrants never managed to master the language, even after living many years in Israel, resulting in a strong social marginalization. Finally, the questioning of their traditional religious practices by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel led to great confusion amongst the new immigrants.
Involvement in politics
The Atid Ehad party, now repurposed as an unrelated "shelf party", saw itself as the political representative of the community, though other parties include Ethiopian members. In 2006, Shas, a party representing Haredi Jews of Sephardic and Middle Eastern background, included an Ethiopian rabbi from Beersheba in its list for the Knesset, in a conscious attempt to represent diverse geographic and ethnic groups. Shas was not the only party attempting to appeal to the Ethiopian vote. Herut - The National Movement and Kadima both had Ethiopians on their lists. Shlomo Mula, head of the Jewish Agency's Ethiopian absorption department, was ranked 33rd on Kadima's list,[38] and Avraham was number three on Herut's list.[citation needed]
In 2012, Israel appointed the country's first Ethiopian-born ambassador, Beylanesh Zevadia. According to the foreign minister of Israel, this represents an important milestone in fighting racism and prejudice.[39] This was followed in 2020 by the appointment of Pnina Tamano-Shata to the post of Minister of Aliyah and Integration in the 35th Israeli government, as the first Ethiopian-born government minister.[40]
Language
The main language used for communication among Israeli citizens and amongst the Ethiopian Beta Israel in Israel is Modern Hebrew. The majority of the Beta Israel immigrants continue to speak in Amharic (primarily) and Tigrinya at home with their family members and friends. The Amharic language and the Tigrinya language are written in the Ge'ez script, originally developed for the Ge'ez language used in Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[citation needed]
Although some non-Jewish Ethiopians expressed bitterness towards the Beta Israel emigration out of Ethiopia,[43] the Ethiopian Jews have close ties with Ethiopian people and tradition. Achievements by the Ethiopian Jews like Hagit Yaso winning the Kokhav Nolad creates a sense of pride in Ethiopia.[citation needed] The Ethiopian government is also an important ally of Israel on the international stage. Israel often sends expert assistance for development projects in Ethiopia. Strategically, Israel "has always aspired to protect itself by means of a non-Arab belt that has included at various times Iran, Turkey, and Ethiopia".[44]
Demography
The following is a list of the most significant Beta Israel population centers in Israel, as of 2006:[45]
The city of Kiryat Malakhi has a large concentration of Ethiopian Beta Israel, with 17.3% of the town's population being members of the Beta Israel as of 2006. This proportion would slightly decline to 16% by 2019.[46][47] Southern towns, including Qiryat Gat, Kiryat Malakhi, Be'er Sheva, Yavne, Ashkelon, Rehovot, Kiryat Ekron, and Gedera have significant Ethiopian Jewish populations.[48]
Table - The Population of Ethiopian Origin at the End of 2022, in Main Localities
The following is a list of the most significant Beta Israel population centers in Israel in localities above 2,000 people, as of 2022, which account for 77.5% of the group's population.[9]
Population of Ethiopian origin out of total population (%)
National Total
9,662.0
168.8
1.7
Netanya
233.1
12.2
5.2
Be’er Sheva
214.2
10.3
4.8
Rishon LeZiyyon
260.5
9.6
3.7
Ashqelon
153.1
9.0
5.9
Petah Tikva
255.4
8.9
3.5
Rehovot
150.7
7.7
5.1
Ashdod
226.8
7.5
3.3
Qiryat Gat
64.4
7.5
11.6
Jerusalem
981.7
6.6
0.7
Hadera
103.0
6.2
6.0
Haifa
290.3
5.8
2.0
Bet Shemesh
154.7
4.6
3.0
Ramla
79.1
4.5
5.7
Lod
85.4
4.4
5.1
Afula
61.5
3.9
6.4
Qiryat Mal’akhi
25.7
3.9
15.1
Yavne
56.2
3.8
6.7
Tel Aviv-Yafo
474.5
2.7
0.6
Holon
198.0
2.7
1.3
Bat Yam
128.5
2.6
2.0
Netivot
46.4
2.3
5.0
Qiryat Yam
41.1
2.1
5.2
Safed
38.0
2.1
5.4
(1) Localities with 2,000 or more residents of Ethiopian origin
Population of Ethiopian Origin by District, 2022[9]
District
Ethiopian Israeli residents
% of total Ethiopian Israeli population
Central
62,361
36.9%
South
44,576
26.4%
Haifa
23,543
13.9%
North
12,235
7.3%
Jerusalem
11,800
7.0%
Tel Aviv
10,689
6.4%
West Bank*
3,461
2.1%
Total
166,845
100.0%
*Referred to as Judea & Samaria in the report.
Controversy
Discrimination claims
Men attending a demonstration against racism and discrimination, 2012
In May 2015, The Jewish Daily Forward described the Ethiopian Jewish community in Israel as one that has "long complained of discrimination, racism, and poverty".[50] The absorption of Ethiopians in Israeli society represents an ambitious attempt to deny the significance of race.[51] Israeli authorities, aware of the situation of most African diaspora communities in other Western countries, hosted programs to avoid setting in patterns of discrimination.[51] The Ethiopian Beta Israel community's internal challenges have been complicated by perceived racist attitudes in some sectors of Israeli society and the establishment.[52]
In 2004, racism was alleged regarding delays in admitting Ethiopian Beta Israel to Israel under the Law of return.[51] However, the delay may be attributed to religious motivations rather than racism, since there was debate whether or not Beta Israel people were indeed Jewish.[53][54]
In 2005, racism was alleged when the mayor of Or Yehuda refused to accept a large increase in Ethiopian immigrants due to fear of having the property of the town decrease in value or having an increase in crime.[55]
In 2009, schoolchildren of Ethiopian ancestry were denied admission into three semi-private Haredi schools in Petah Tikva. An Israeli government official criticized the Petah Tikva Municipality and the schools. Shas spiritual leader Ovadia Yosef threatened to fire any school principal from Shas's school system who refused to receive Ethiopian students. The Israeli Education Ministry decided to pull funding from the Lamerhav, Da'at Mevinim, and Darkhei Noam schools, which refused to accept the students. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu spoke out against the rejection of Ethiopian children, calling it "a moral terror attack".[56][57]
Demonstrations in Israel have occurred protesting the alleged racism against Ethiopian immigrants.[58]
In April 2015, an Ethiopian IDF soldier was the victim of an unprovoked and allegedly racist attack by an Israeli policeman and the attack was caught on video. The soldier, Damas Pakedeh, was arrested and then released, after being accused of attacking the policeman. Pakadeh is an orphan who emigrated from Ethiopia with his siblings in 2008. He believes the incident was racially motivated, and that, if the video had not been taken, he would have been punished. Instead, the police officer and volunteer were suspended pending an investigation. Likud MK Avraham Neguise called on National Police Chief Yohanan Danino to prosecute the police officer and volunteer, saying they engaged in "a gross violation of the basic law of respecting others and their liberty by those who are supposed to protect us". The Jerusalem Post notes that in 2015, "there have been a series of reports in the Israeli press about alleged acts of police brutality against Ethiopian Israelis, with many in the community saying they are unfairly targeted and treated more harshly than other citizens".[59][60]
The incident of police brutality with Pakedeh and alleged brutality of officials from Israel's Administration of Border Crossings, Population, and Immigration with Walla Bayach, an Israeli of Ethiopian descent, brought the Ethiopian community to protest. Hundreds of Ethiopians participated in protests the streets of Jerusalem on April 20, 2015, to decry what they view as "rampant racism" and violence in Israel directed at their community. Israel Police Commissioner Yohanan Danino met with representatives of the Israeli Ethiopian community that day following the recent violent incidents involving police officers and members of the community.[61] When over a thousand people protested police brutality against Ethiopians and dark-skinned Israelis, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announced: "I strongly condemn the beating of the Ethiopian IDF soldier, and those responsible will be held accountable."[62] Following protests and demonstrations in Tel Aviv that resulted in violence, Netanyahu planned to meet with representatives of the Ethiopian community, including Pakado. Netanyahu said the meeting would include Danino and representatives of several ministries, including Immigrant Absorption. Danino already announced that the officer who beat Pakado had been fired.[63]
Large protests broke out in July 2019 after Solomon Teka, a young Ethiopian man, was shot and killed by an off-duty policy officer, in Kiryat Haim, Haifa, in northern Israel.[64][65]
Blood donations
On January 24, 1996, Ma'ariv newspaper revealed a Magen David Adom policy that drew heavy criticism in Israel and worldwide.[66][67][68] According to the policy, which was not brought to the attention of the Israeli Ministry of Health or donors, blood donations received from Ethiopian immigrants and their offspring were secretly disposed of. A later public inquiry traced this back to a misinterpretation of a 1984 instruction to mark blood donations from Ethiopian immigrants due to a relatively high prevalence of HBsAg, indicative of Hepatitis B infections, in blood samples taken from this population.[69]
A few days after the expose, ten thousand Beta Israel demonstrated in front of the Office of the Prime Minister. The police force was surprised and unprepared for the violence that erupted, leading to policemen being injured by stones, sticks, and steel rods. The police repelled the demonstrators with rubber bullets, water cannons, and tear gas. 41 policemen and 20 demonstrators were injured, and 200 cars belonging to the employees of the Prime Minister's Office were damaged.
Tests conducted on 650 Ethiopian immigrants who immigrated to Israel in 1984–1990 and 5,200 Ethiopian immigrants who immigrated in 1990–1992 revealed no HIV carriers before July 1990. Nevertheless, among the 5,200 Ethiopian immigrants who immigrated during "Operation Solomon", there were 118 HIV carriers, who made up 2.3 percent of the test population.[70][71][72][73][74]
The public outcry led to the establishment of a commission of inquiry headed by former Israeli president Yitzhak Navon. After several months, the committee published its conclusions, calling for a change in policy. The Committee did not find evidence of racism, although some researchers have contested this.[66][75][76]
On November 6, 2006, hundreds of Ethiopian protesters clashed with police while attempting to block the entrance to Jerusalem in the wake of the Israeli Health Ministry's decision to continue the MDA policy of disposing of donations from high-risk groups.[77]
To date, the MDA prohibits the use of blood donations from natives of sub-Saharan Africa, except South Africa, natives of Southeast Asia, natives of the Caribbean and natives of countries which have been widely affected by the AIDS epidemic, including donations from the natives of Ethiopia. Since 1991, all immigrants from Ethiopia undergo mandatory HIV screenings, regardless of their intention to donate blood.[78][79][80]
Birth control
According to a TV program in 2012, female Ethiopian immigrants may have been given the Depo-Provera birth control drug under intimidation, and without full explanation of its effects,[81] although, in response to a letter from the Association of Civil Rights in Israel, the Israeli health ministry instructed all health maintenance organizations not to use the treatment unless patients understand the ramifications. Ethiopian Jewish women awaiting aliyah were given birth control while in transit camps. The drug has existed for around thirty years and about forty percent of women use this method of birth control in Ethiopia.[82]
The practice was first reported in 2010 by Isha le'Isha (Hebrew: Woman to Woman), an Israeli women's rights organization. Hedva Eyal, the report's author, stated: "We believe it is a method of reducing the number of births in a community that is black and mostly poor."[83]Haaretz criticized international coverage of the issue, alleging that many Ethiopian women's procreational rights had been violated through poor medical practice on immigrant communities, but dismissed ideas of state-sponsored sterilization as false as the effects of Depo-Provera last only for three months.[84]
According to Haaretz, the government investigation in 2016 into 35 Ethiopian women's claims found no evidence that forced birth control injections for Ethiopian-Israelis took place.[85] In a subsequently published independent study, the rapid decline in fertility rate was shown to be "the product of urbanization, improved educational opportunities, a later age of marriage and commencement of childbirth and an earlier age of cessation of childbearing."[86]
The Jewish Agency for Israel, formerly known as the Jewish Agency for Palestine, is the largest Jewish non-profit organization in the world. It was established in 1929 as the operative branch of the World Zionist Organization (WZO).
Aliyah is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to, historically, the geographical Land of Israel or the Palestine region, which is today chiefly represented by the State of Israel. Traditionally described as "the act of going up", moving to the Land of Israel or "making aliyah" is one of the most basic tenets of Zionism. The opposite action – emigration by Jews from the Land of Israel – is referred to in the Hebrew language as yerida. The Law of Return that was passed by the Israeli parliament in 1950 gives all diaspora Jews, as well as their children and grandchildren, the right to relocate to Israel and acquire Israeli citizenship on the basis of connecting to their Jewish identity.
Operation Moses was the covert evacuation of Ethiopian Jews from Sudan during a civil war that caused a famine in 1984. Originally called Gur Aryeh Yehuda by Israelis, the United Jewish Appeal changed the name to "Operation Moses".
The Beta Israel, or Ethiopian Jews, are a Jewish diaspora group that lived for thousands of years in the territory of the Kingdom of Aksum and its successor the Ethiopian Empire, which is currently divided between the Amhara Region and Tigray Region in modern-day Ethiopia. After the founding of the State of Israel in 1948, most of the Beta Israel immigrated there or were evacuated through several initiatives by the Israeli government.
Falash Mura is the name given to descendants of the Beta Israel community in Ethiopia who converted to Christianity, primarily as a consequence of Western proselytization during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This term also includes Beta Israel who did not adhere to any Ethiopian Jewish practices, as well as the aforementioned historical converts to Christianity. While most voluntarily converted, some were also forcibly converted against their will, or felt compelled to convert due to economic hardship and social exclusion in a majority Christian population.
Operation Solomon was a covert Israeli military operation from May 24 to 25, 1991, to airlift Ethiopian Jews to Israel. Non-stop flights of 35 Israeli aircraft, including Israeli Air Force C-130s and El Al Boeing 747s, transported 14,325 Ethiopian Jews to Israel in 36 hours. One of the aircraft, an El Al 747, carried at least 1,088 people, including two babies who were born on the flight, and holds the world record for the most passengers on an aircraft. Eight children were born during the airlift process.
Ma'abarot were immigrant and refugee absorption camps established in Israel in the 1950s, constituting one of the largest public projects planned by the state to implement its sociospatial and housing policies.
Sigd, also Mehlella or Amata Saww, is one of the unique holidays of the Beta Israel community, and is celebrated on the 29th of the Hebrew month of Marcheshvan. Since 2008, it has been an official Israeli state holiday.
Nefesh B'Nefesh, or Jewish Souls United, is a nonprofit organization, promotes, encourages and facilitates aliyah from the United States and Canada.
Yishai Fleisher is an Israeli Orthodox Jewish rabbi, podcast host, international spokesperson for the Jewish Community of Hebron, and member of Efrat municipal council. Fleisher is an advocate of aliyah, the immigration of Jews to Israel.
Yona Bogale was an Ethiopian Jewish educator and public figure, who served as the director of the Beta Israel education network in Ethiopia and worked vigorously for the immigration of Ethiopian Jews to Israel. He led the efforts to improve the living conditions of the Beta Israel in Ethiopia by expanding education, providing medical facilities, increasing agricultural production and promoting religious freedom. His persistence in the face of opposition enabled many thousands of his people to fulfill their lifelong dream of Aliyah, or return to the homeland of Israel.
Aliyah from Ethiopia is the immigration of the Beta Israel people to Israel. Early forms of Zionism have existed in Ethiopia since the mid 19th-century, as shown in the 1848 letters from the Beta Israel to Jews in Europe praying for the unification of Jews. A year after the first letter was sent, Daniel Ben Hananiah and his son were sent by the Kahen to Jerusalem and made contact with the Jewish leaders there.
The history of the Jews in Ethiopia dates back millennia. The largest Jewish group in Ethiopia is the Beta Israel. Offshoots of the Beta Israel include the Beta Abraham and the Falash Mura, Ethiopian Jews who were converted to Christianity, some of whom have reverted to Judaism. Addis Ababa is home to a small community of Adeni Jews. Chabad also maintains a presence in Addis Ababa.
Israeli Jews or Jewish Israelis comprise Israel's largest ethnic and religious community. The core of their demographic consists of those with a Jewish identity and their descendants, including ethnic Jews and religious Jews alike. Approximately 99% of the global Israeli Jewish population resides in Israel; yerida is uncommon and is offset exponentially by aliyah, but those who do emigrate from the country typically relocate to the Western world. As such, the Israeli diaspora is closely tied to the broader Jewish diaspora.
Racism in Israel encompasses all forms and manifestations of racism experienced in Israel, irrespective of the colour or creed of the perpetrator and victim, or their citizenship, residency, or visitor status. More specifically in the Israeli context, racism in Israel refers to racism directed against Israeli Arabs by Israeli Jews, intra-Jewish racism between the various Jewish ethnic divisions, historic and current racism towards Mizrahi Jews although some believe the dynamics have reversed, and racism on the part of Israeli Arabs against Israeli Jews.
Uri Ben Baruch was a Liqa Kahnet and the main leader of the Ethiopian Jewish community for nearly 50 years, from the Italian occupation of Ethiopia until his death.
Avraham Neguise is an Israeli politician and activist for the Falash Mura community. He served as a member of the Knesset for the Likud party from 2015 to 2019.
French Jews in Israel are immigrants and descendants of the immigrants of the French Jewish communities, who now reside within the state of Israel. They numbered over 200,000 as of 2012.
Am Yisrael Foundation is a Tel Aviv and New York–based foundation and umbrella nonprofit organization for a variety of initiatives that promote Zionist engagement among Jewish young adults residing in Israel, including providing leadership platforms for young Jews who have made Aliyah, or are contemplating immigration to Israel.
Memorial Day for Ethiopian Jews is an annual memorial day held on the 28th of Iyar, coinciding with Jerusalem Day. This day commemorates the thousands of Ethiopian Jews who died during their journey to Israel, particularly during the mass aliyah operations in the 1980s.
↑ Weil, S. 2016b “The Complexities of Conversion among the ‘Felesmura’”. In: Eloi Ficquet, Ahmed Hassen and Thomas Osmond (eds.), Movements in Ethiopia, Ethiopia in Movement: Proceedings of the 18th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies. Addis Ababa: French Center for Ethiopian Studies, Institute of Ethiopian Studies of Addis Ababa University; Los Angeles: Tsehai Publishers, Vol. 1 pp.435-445.
↑ Weil, Shalva (2011). "Operation Solomon 20 Years On". International Relations and Security Network (ISN). Retrieved August 27, 2017.
↑ Weil, Shalva (2007). "Operation Solomon by Stephen Spector". Studies in Contemporary Jewry, an Annual. Vol.22. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.341–343.
↑ Greenfeld, Yitzhak (2011). The Chief Rabbinate of the Land of Israel and the Jews of Ethiopia during the British Mandate. Haberman Institute for Literary Studies. pp. 191–198.
↑ Gerrit Jan Abbink, The Falashas In Ethiopia And Israel: The Problem of Ethnic Assimilation, Nijmegen, Institute for Cultural and Social Anthropology, 1984, p. 114
↑ Kaplan, Stephen (1988). "The Beta Israel and the Rabbinate: Law, Ritual and Politics". Social Science Information. 27 (3): 357–370. doi:10.1177/053901888027003004. S2CID144691315.
↑ Weil, S., 2016. "The Complexities of Conversion among the 'Felesmura'". In: Eloi Ficquet, Ahmed Hassen and Thomas Osmond (eds.), Movements in Ethiopia, Ethiopia in Movement: Proceedings of the 18th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies. Addis Ababa: French Center for Ethiopian Studies, Institute of Ethiopian Studies of Addis Ababa University; Los Angeles: Tsehai Publishers, Vol. 1 pp. 435–445. Link
↑ "Kaïliña–a "new" Agaw dialect and its implications for Agaw dialectology". In Voice and Power. The Culture of Language in North-East Africa. Ed. by R.J. Hayward & I. Lewis. pp.1–19. London, SOAS. 1996 (March). ISBN0-7286-0257-1.
↑ David Appleyard, "Preparing a Comparative Agaw Dictionary", in ed. Griefenow-Mewis & Voigt, Cushitic & Omotic Languages: Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium Berlin, Mar. 17-19, 1994, Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Köln 1996. ISBN3-927620-28-9.
1 2 Seeman, D (June 1999). "One people, one blood": public health, political violence, and HIV in an Ethiopian-Israeli setting". Cult Med Psychiatry. 23 (2): 159–195. doi:10.1023/A:1005439308374. PMID10451801. S2CID19608785.
↑ Alkan, ML; Maayan, S; Belmaker, I; Arbeli, Y; Mani, N; Ben-Yshai, F (June–July 1993). "Serological markers for hepatitis B and treponemal infection among HIV carriers from Ethiopia". Isr J Med Sci. 29 (6–7): 390–392. PMID8349459.
↑ Gerald M. Oppenheimer, 'In the eye of the storm: The epidemiological construction of AIDS', pp. 267–300, in Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox, eds., 'AIDS: The Burdens of History', (University of California Press, 1988) ISBN978-0-520-06395-2
↑ Farmer P., 'AIDS and accusation. Haiti and the geography of blame', University of California Press, Berkeley, 1992. ISBN978-0-520-08343-1 pp. 210–228
↑ Kaplan, Steven (2016). "Coercion and Control". International Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 10 (1&2): 35–50. JSTOR26554851. Retrieved November 5, 2023.
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