Mahakam River

Last updated

Mahakam
Samarinda s.jpg
Mahakam River at Samarinda
MahakamMap.jpg
Location
Country Indonesia
Province East Kalimantan
Towns/Cities Samarinda, Tenggarong, Sebulu, Muara Kaman, Kotabangun, Melak, Long Iram
Physical characteristics
SourceCemaru
 • location Indonesia
 • elevation1,681 m (5,515 ft)
Mouth Makassar Strait
 • location
 Indonesia
 • coordinates
 0°35′6″S117°16′33″E / 0.58500°S 117.27583°E / -0.58500; 117.27583
 • elevation
0 m (0 ft)
Length980 km (610 mi)
Basin size77,095 km2 (29,767 sq mi)
Width 
 • minimum145 m (476 ft)
 • maximum1,260 m (4,130 ft)
Depth 
 • average8 m (26 ft) to 15 m (49 ft)
 • maximum45 m (148 ft)
Discharge 
 • locationMahakam Delta, Makassar Strait
 • average(Period: 2016–2020)5,953 m3/s (210,200 cu ft/s) [1]

(Period: 2003–2016)4,278 m3/s (151,100 cu ft/s) [2] (Period: 1970–2000)123 km3/a (3,900 m3/s) [3]

4,560

Contents

 m3/s (161,000 cu ft/s) [4]
Discharge 
 • locationMuara Mahakam Samarinda (66 km upstream of mouth - Basin size 74,358 km2 (28,710 sq mi))
 • average5,000 m3/s (180,000 cu ft/s) [5]
 • maximum(Year: 2012)24,156 m3/s (853,100 cu ft/s)(Tenggarong)
Discharge 
 • locationMelak (Basin size: 25,700 km2 (9,900 sq mi)) [6]
 • average2,500 m3/s (88,000 cu ft/s) [5] 2,000 m3/s (71,000 cu ft/s)
 • maximum28,250 m3/s (998,000 cu ft/s) 3,250 m3/s (115,000 cu ft/s)
Basin features
River system Mahakam basin (DAS330236) [7]
Tributaries 
 • leftMelaseh, Tepai, Nyaan, Boh, Medang, Pariq, Muyub, Pela, Belayan, Telen, Kedang Rantau
 • rightUsok, Danum Parae, Kosso, Cihar, Ratah, Kedang Pahu, Bongan, Jembayan
Indonesia Kalimantan location map.svg
Arrows 12x12 s.svg
Mahakam
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Mahakam River in Kalimantan

The Mahakam River (Indonesian: Sungai Mahakam) is third longest and volume discharge river in Borneo after Kapuas River and Barito River, it is located in Kalimantan, Indonesia. It flows 980 kilometers (610 miles) from the district of Long Apari in the highlands of Borneo, to its mouth at the Makassar Strait.

The city of Samarinda, the provincial capital of East Kalimantan, lies along 48 kilometers (30 mi) from the river mouth. The delta Mahakam river consist of specific micro climate which is influenced by high and low tide at sea level.

Summary

The Mahakam River is the largest river in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, with a catchment area of approximately 77,100 km2. The catchment lies between 2˚N to 1˚S latitude and 113˚E to 118˚E longitude. The river originates in Cemaru [8] from where it flows south-eastwards, meeting the River Kedang Pahu at the city of Muara Pahu. From there, the river flows eastward through the Mahakam lakes region, which is a flat tropical lowland area surrounded by peat land. Thirty shallow lakes are situated in this area, which are connected to the Mahakam through small channels . Downstream of the connection with the Semayang and Melintang lakes, the Mahakam meets three other main tributaries – the rivers Belayan, Kedang Kepala, and Kedang Rantau – and flows south-eastwards through the Mahakam delta distributaries, to the Makassar Strait.

Geology

Kalimantan, where the Mahakam lies, is part of the Sunda Continental Plate. The large island has mountain ranges between Indonesia and Malaysia. As described by van Bemmelen (1949), River Mahakam rises in Cemaru (1,681 meters (5,515 feet)) in the center of Kalimantan, and from there it cuts through the pre-tertiary axis of the island east of the Batuayan (1,652 meters (5,420 ft)) and then reaches the tertiary basin of Kutai. [9] Its middle course traverses a lowland plain with many marshy lakes. This intermontane depression is separated from the neighboring basin, the Barito depression, by a broad hilly tract of less than 500 meters (1,600 ft) altitude. After this region, the Mahakam cuts through the Samarinda anticlinorium and reaches its alluvial delta, which spreads like a broad fan over the shelf-sea, with a base of 65 kilometers (40 mi) and a radius of about 30 kilometers (19 mi). [10]

Upstream of Long Iram (upstream part of Mahakam river basin), the river is flowing in tertiary rocks (Voss, 1983). [11] Between Long Iram and Muara Kaman (middle Mahakam area) the river is flowing in quaternary alluvium, while in the downstream area between Muara Kaman and the coast including the Mahakam delta, tertiary rocks are again present. The presence of the large delta is explained by the formation and rejuvenation of the hilly region near Samarinda. [12]

Climate

The Mahakam catchment is around the equator. The average annual rainfall in the catchment area is 3163 mm. The average runoff is around 1911 mm. [13] According to Köppen climate classification, this area belongs to type Af (tropical rainforest) and has a minimum temperature ≥18 °C and precipitation of the driest month in normal year ≥60 mm [14] Transfer of mass and energy in the tropical zone occurred through general air circulation known as the Hadley cell. According to Seidel et al. (2008), the precipitation pattern in this area is largely determined by this large-scale atmospheric wind pattern, which is observable in several ways throughout the atmosphere. This circulation carries moisture into the air, generating rainfall in equatorial regions, whereas the edges of the tropical belt are drier. [15] Within this circulation, evaporation occurs intensively around the equator on the center of low pressure called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), characterized by the accumulation of clouds in the area. The ITCZ moves following the pseudo-motion of the sun within the 23.5°N and 23.5°S zone, therefore its position always changes according to this motion.

The ITCZ drives the Indo-Australian monsoon phenomena which influence the regional climate including the Mahakam catchment. In December, January, and February (winter in the Northern Hemisphere) the concentration of high pressure in Asia and low pressure in Australia make the west wind blow in Indonesia (west monsoon). In June, July, and August concentration of low pressure in Asia (summer in the Northern Hemisphere) and a concentration of high pressure in Australia make the east wind blow in Indonesia (east monsoon). Due to the global air circulation and the regional climate mentioned above, the Mahakam catchment which is located around the equator has a bimodal rainfall pattern with two peaks of rainfall, which are generally occurred in December and May. This is because the ITCZ passes through the equator twice a year, from the Northern Hemisphere in September and from the Southern Hemisphere in March. [16]

Lakes

Lake Melintang at Teluk Tuk with a re-growing burnt swamp forest in the background Melintan.jpg
Lake Melintang at Teluk Tuk with a re-growing burnt swamp forest in the background

There are about 76 lakes spread in the Mahakam river basin and about 30 lakes are located in the middle Mahakam area including the three main lakes (Lake Jempang 15,000 Ha; Lake Semayang 13,000 Ha; Lake Melintang 11,000 Ha). [17] The lake levels are seasonally fluctuated from 0.5 m – 1 m during the dry period to seven meters during the rainy season. The Mahakam lakes and surrounding wetlands act as water storage as well as a trap of sediment contained in the water flowing into the lakes which are now known to become shallower, presumably as a result of an imbalance between sediment input and slow subsidence.

Fishing is the primary source of livelihood in the Mahakam lakes area, most of the people around the lakes are fishermen. The middle Mahakam Lake area is an area of intensive fishing activity with a productivity of 25,000 to 35,000 metric tons per year since 1970.

Delta

Nypa in Mahakam Delta Nypha.jpg
Nypa in Mahakam Delta

The Mahakam delta is a mixed fluvial-tidal dominated delta. The delta covers about 1,800 square kilometers (690 sq mi), consisting of mangrove areas near the shore, Nypa swamps in the central areas, and lowland forest near the apex, corresponding to the first bifurcation. Fishery development in this area has converted a vast area of mangrove into shrimp ponds (tambak). However, recent mangrove restoration efforts have taken place in the delta by replanting mangroves in abandoned shrimp ponds and encouraging silvofishery. [18] Many areas in the Mahakam delta are already naturally recolonized by mangrove vegetation contributing to ecosystem restoration. [19] Mangroves also function as sedimentation-enhancing strategies by capturing sediment-causing accretion. [20]

The delta has three main distributary systems directed Northeast, Southeast, and South. The area between distributaries consists of a series of tidal channels generally unconnected to the main distributaries. [21] The distributary channels are narrow and rectilinear with the depth ranging from 8 to 15 meters (26 to 49 ft) and distributary channel bifurcations appear every 10 to 15 kilometers (6.2 to 9.3 mi). [22]

This lower Mahakam area is the second most productive hydrocarbon basin of Indonesia which contains around 3 billion barrels of oil and 30 Tcf of gas reserves. [23] Field geological investigations in this area were started in 1888 and in 1897 exploration drilling discovered oil at a shallow depth of 46 meters (151 ft) on the Louise structure. Production started in 1898 followed by expansion of exploration to the entire Mahakam. [24]

Tributaries

The main tributaries from the mouth: [25]

Left

tributary

Right

tributary

Length

(km)

Basin size

(km2)

Average discharge

(m3/s)*

Mahakam98077,243.653,897.7
Loa Haor120463.411.6
Jembayan1801,365.634.7
Karang Mumus40318.37
Tenggarong297.16.8
Separi329.89
Kedang Rantau1323,631.877.8
Kedang Kepala 323.915,703.5582.1
Belayan 3199,977.3556.6
Pela (Semayang)102,206.265.9
Kedang Murung435.110.3
Bongan202,161.4117
Kedang Pahu1446,800.3300
Muyub48738.232.4
Kelian270.714.4
Pariq641,006.950.6
Ratah3,302.9191.7
Merah5127513.8
Medang839.343.5
Alan32410.622.6
Boh716,624.4365.1
Nyaan72495.829
Tepai797.350.8
Melaseh848.259.6
Cihar375.427.3
Serata247.919
Kosso410.432.7
Sikê289.323
Danum Parae503.342.4
Sihi265.722.4
Usok448.535.5

*Period: 1971–2000

Ecology

Nepenthes, called kantong semar by the locals, is an insect-eater plant found in the Mahakam peat area Kantongsemar.jpg
Nepenthes, called kantong semar by the locals, is an insect-eater plant found in the Mahakam peat area
Birds at the intermittent inlet of Lake Jempang from the Mahakam River Jempangbird.jpg
Birds at the intermittent inlet of Lake Jempang from the Mahakam River

Mahakam and its floodplain is an ecologically important region. A total of 147 indigenous freshwater fish species had been identified from the Mahakam. [26] The Mahakam hosts the freshwater dolphin Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris; called Pesut by local people) a critically endangered species, which is included in CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) Appendix I. The Mahakam river basin is also important breeding and resting place for 298 bird species, among them 70 protected and five endemic species: Borneo dusky mannikin (Lonchura fuscans), Borneo whistler (Pachycephala hypoxantha), Bornean peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron schleiermacheri), Bornean blue-flycatcher (Cyornis superbus) and Bornean bristlehead (Pityriasis gymnocephala).

A research cluster (): "Upsetting the balance in the Mahakam Delta: past, present and future impacts of sea level rise, climate change, upstream controls and human intervention on sediment and mangrove dynamics" extensively researches the Mahakam. The cluster's objective is to study the impact of external forcing factors such as sea-level rise, climate change, upstream sediment, as well as human interference on past, present, and future development of the Mahakam delta in different time scales.

Pollution

Logging and mining activities have contributed to the "alarming rate" of pollution of East Kalimantan's Mahakam River. Tests of water pollutants showed levels increased sharply between 2009 and 2011. Despite the growing pollution, it is claimed that "the water is still safe for consumption." [27]

Unsafe concentrations of heavy metals have been observed in Mahakam fish. A 2015 study found lead concentrations over 1000 times safe levels along with unsafe levels of copper, zinc, and cadmium. [28]

Bridges

Bridges include the 400-meter (1,300 ft) Mahakam Bridge and the 710-meter (2,330 ft) Kutai Kartanegara Bridge. The latter collapsed on 26 November 2011, it took 3 years of planning and one and half years more to rebuild a new bridge on the same spot. The new Kutai Kertanegara Bridge has been open for public use since 8 December 2015, after an opening ceremony held by a local regent.

Social aspect

Ponton transporting coal through the Mahakam Ponton coal.jpg
Ponton transporting coal through the Mahakam

The River Mahakam is an economic resource for fishermen and farmers and a freshwater source, as a waterway since ancient times until today. It is in this river basin where the Kutai kingdom evolved. The Kutai history is divided into two periods, Kutai Martadipura (around 350–400 AD) and Kutai Kartanegara period (around 1300). Kutai Martadipura, a Hindu kingdom founded by Mulawarman at Muara Kaman, is regarded as the oldest kingdom in Indonesia. [29] Kutai Kartanegara was founded by settlers from Java at Kutai Lama near the mouth of Mahakam. In around 1565, Islam was extensively spread in Kartanegara by two Moslem preachers from Java, Tunggang Parangan and Ri Bandang. [30]

The Dayaks are the indigenous people inhabiting Kalimantan beside the Kutais and the Banjars. Since the 1970s transmigration of people to East Kalimantan was organized by the Indonesian government, especially in areas near River Mahakam. Transmigration aims to migrate people from overpopulated Java, Bali, and Madura islands to stimulate greater agricultural productivity in the outer islands. By 1973, almost 26% of the land under cultivation in East Kalimantan was being worked by migrants. [31]

See also

The Mahakam bridge in Samarinda Mahakam bridge.jpg
The Mahakam bridge in Samarinda

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East Kalimantan</span> Province of Indonesia

East Kalimantan is a province of Indonesia. Its territory comprises the eastern portion of Borneo. It had a population of about 3.03 million at the 2010 census, 3.42 million at the 2015 census, and 3.766 million at the 2020 census; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 3,859,783. Its capital is the city of Samarinda.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Balikpapan</span> City in East Kalimantan, Indonesia

Balikpapan is a seaport city in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Located on the east coast of the island of Borneo, the city is the financial center of Kalimantan. Balikpapan is the city with the largest economy in Kalimantan with an estimated 2016 GDP at Rp 73.18 trillion. The city has the third busiest airport in Kalimantan after that in Banjarmasin and Pontianak, namely Sultan Aji Muhammad Sulaiman Sepinggan Airport. Port of Semayang was the second busiest seaport in East Kalimantan, after that in Samarinda.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kapuas River</span> River in West Kalimantan, Indonesia

The Kapuas River is a river in the Indonesian part of Borneo island, at the geographic center of Maritime Southeast Asia. At 1,143 kilometers (710 mi) in length, it is the longest river in the island of Borneo and the longest river in Indonesia and one of the world's longest island rivers. It originates in the Müller mountain range at the center of the island and flows west into the South China Sea creating an extended marshy delta. The delta is located west-southwest of Pontianak, the capital of the West Kalimantan province. This Kapuas River should be distinguished from another Kapuas River, which starts on the other side of the same mountain range in central Borneo but flows to the south, merging with the Barito River and discharging into the Java Sea.

The Lawa River is a river in East Kalimantan province, Borneo island, Indonesia, about 150 kilometers northwest of Balikpapan. It is a branch of the Mahakam River in eastern Borneo, which is situated entirely within the Kutai Barat and flows into the Mahakam approximately 200 kilometers (120 mi) upstream from Samarinda. The indigenous communities of Lotaq and Mejaun are situated near its source.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bontang</span> City in East Kalimantan, Indonesia

Bontang is a city on the eastern coast of the island of Borneo in Indonesia, in the province of East Kalimantan. It occupies an area of 161.88 km2 (62.50 sq mi), and the population was 140,787 at the 2010 census, and 178,917 at the 2020 census; the official estimate as of mid-2022 was 183,161. It is also the third most densely populated place in the province after Balikpapan and Samarinda.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kutai Kartanegara Regency</span> Regency in East Kalimantan, Indonesia

Kutai Kartanegara Regency is a regency of East Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. It has a land area of 27,263.10 km2 and a water area of 4,097 km2, geographically located between 1°18′40″S and 116°31′36″E. The population of the regency was 626,286 at the 2010 Census and 729,382 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as of mid-2022 was 738,189. The town of Tenggarong is the capital of the regency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kutai</span> Historical region in what is now East Kalimantan, Indonesia

Kutai is a historical region in what is now known as East Kalimantan, Indonesia on the island of Borneo and is also the name of the native ethnic group of the region, numbering around 300,000 who have their own language known as the Kutainese language which accompanies their own rich history. Today, the name is preserved in the names of three regencies in East Kalimantan province which are the Kutai Kartanegara Regency, the West Kutai Regency and the East Kutai Regency with the major river flowing in the heart of the region known as the Mahakam River. Kutai is known to be the place of the first and oldest Hindu kingdom to exist in East Indies Archipelago, the Kutai Martadipura Kingdom which was later succeeded by the Muslim Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kutai National Park</span> National park in Indonesia

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Kutai is a Malayic language spoken by 300,000 to 500,000 people. It is the native language of the Kutai people, the indigenous ethnic group which lives along the Mahakam River in Borneo, especially in North Kalimantan, Indonesia. They are the principal population in the regencies of West Kutai, Kutai Kartanegara, and East Kutai within North Kalimantan province.

Tenggarong is a town in and the capital of Kutai Kartanegara Regency of East Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. Tenggarong is also a district (kecamatan). The former Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate's capital was likewise located in Tenggarong.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pembuang River</span> River in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

Pembuang River or Seruyan River is a river of Borneo, Indonesia. The river has its source near Bikit Tikung in the Schwaner Mountain Range. The eastern side of the river contains dense forest down to Sembulu (Belajau) lakes and is said to be a major habitat of the orangutan. Pembuang means "place of rejection".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kapuas River (Barito River tributary)</span> River in Indonesia

The Kapuas River is a river in the Indonesian part of Borneo island. It originates in the Müller Mountain Range at the center of the island and flows south until merging with the Barito River and discharging into the Java Sea. It should be distinguished from another Kapuas River, which starts on the other side of the same mountain range in central Borneo but flows to the west and empties to the South China Sea.

The Telen River is a river in East Kalimantan, Borneo island, Indonesia, about 110 kilometers north of the provincial capital Samarinda. It is a tributary of the Mahakam River.

The Belayan River is a river of Borneo, Indonesia, 1300 km northeast of the capital Jakarta. It is a tributary of the Mahakam River.

The Negara River is a river of Borneo, Indonesia. It flows in the southeast region of the island, within the Negara District, province of South Kalimantan. It is the second longest river in the province after the Barito River, which the Negara River flows into.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kutai Kartanegara Bridge</span> Arch bridge in East Kalimantan, Indonesia; formerly a suspension bridge

The Kutai Kartanegara Bridge is an arch bridge, formerly a suspension bridge, located in Kutai Kartanegara Regency, East Kalimantan, on the island of Borneo in Indonesia. It crosses the Mahakam River and connects Tenggarong and Tenggarong Seberang districts, as well as roads that lead to Samarinda.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sanga-Sanga, Kutai Kartanegara</span>

Sanga-Sanga is a district in Kutai Kartanegara Regency, East Kalimantan in Indonesia. Sanga-Sanga has an area of 233.4 km², and is divided into villages, namely Jawa, Pendingin, Sanga-Sanga Dalam, Sanga-Sanga Muara, and Sarijaya. The district's population was 11,855 inhabitants in 2005. This district is an important oil-producing area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kutai Basin</span>

The Kutai sedimentary basin extends from the central highlands of Borneo, across the eastern coast of the island and into the Makassar Strait. With an area of 60,000 km2, and depths up to 15 km, the Kutai is the largest and deepest Tertiary age basin in Indonesia. Plate tectonic evolution in the Indonesian region of SE Asia has produced a diverse array of basins in the Cenozoic. The Kutai is an extensional basin in a general foreland setting. Its geologic evolution begins in the mid Eocene and involves phases of extension and rifting, thermal sag, and isostatic subsidence. Rapid, high volume, sedimentation related to uplift and inversion began in the Early Miocene. The different stages of Kutai basin evolution can be roughly correlated to regional and local tectonic events. It is also likely that regional climate, namely the onset of the equatorial ever wet monsoon in early Miocene, has affected the geologic evolution of Borneo and the Kutai basin through the present day. Basin fill is ongoing in the lower Kutai basin, as the modern Mahakam River delta progrades east across the continental shelf of Borneo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bahau people</span> Sub-ethnic group

Bahau people is a sub-ethnic group of the Dayak people who inhabit West Kutai Regency (9.3%), East Kalimantan, Indonesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sedimentation enhancing strategy</span> Environmental management projects aiming to restore land-building processes in deltas

Sedimentation enhancing strategies are environmental management projects aiming to restore and facilitate land-building processes in deltas. Sediment availability and deposition are important because deltas naturally subside and therefore need sediment accumulation to maintain their elevation, particularly considering increasing rates of sea-level rise. Sedimentation enhancing strategies aim to increase sedimentation on the delta plain primarily by restoring the exchange of water and sediments between rivers and low-lying delta plains. Sedimentation enhancing strategies can be applied to encourage land elevation gain to offset sea-level rise. Interest in sedimentation enhancing strategies has recently increased due to their ability to raise land elevation, which is important for the long-term sustainability of deltas.

References

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  28. ↑ "Kutai Kingdom | Melayu Online". Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 24 December 2009.
  29. ↑ Allan J. & Muller K., 1988. The Times Travel Library: East Kalimantan, Ed. By P. Zach, Times Editions.
  30. ↑ Babcock, 1986 as cited by Stadtmueller T., 1990. Soil erosion in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Proceedings of the Fiji Symposium Research Needs and Applications to Reduce Erosion and Sedimentation in Tropical Steeplands, June 1990: IAHS-AISH Publ. No.192,1990.

0°35′S117°17′E / 0.583°S 117.283°E / -0.583; 117.283

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