Island arc

Last updated March 15, 2024

Island arcs are long chains of active volcanoes with intense seismic activity found along convergent tectonic plate boundaries. Most island arcs originate on oceanic crust and have resulted from the descent of the lithosphere into the mantle along the subduction zone. They are the principal way by which continental growth is achieved.^[1]

Island arcs can either be active or inactive based on their seismicity and presence of volcanoes. Active arcs are ridges of recent volcanoes with an associated deep seismic zone. They also possess a distinct curved form, a chain of active or recently extinct volcanoes, a deep-sea trench, and a large negative Bouguer anomaly on the convex side of the volcanic arc. The small positive gravity anomaly associated with volcanic arcs has been interpreted by many authors as due to the presence of dense volcanic rocks beneath the arc. Inactive arcs are a chain of islands which contains older volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks.^[2]

The curved shape of many volcanic chains and the angle of the descending lithosphere are related.^[3] If the oceanic part of the plate is represented by the ocean floor on the convex side of the arc, and if the zone of flexing occurs beneath the submarine trench, then the deflected part of the plate coincides approximately with the Benioff zone beneath most arcs.

Location

Most modern island arcs are near the continental margins (particularly in the northern and western margins of the Pacific Ocean). However, no direct evidence from within the arcs shows that they have always existed at their present position with respect to the continents, although evidence from some continental margins suggests that some arcs may have migrated toward the continents during the late Mesozoic or early Cenozoic.^[2] They are also found at oceanic-oceanic convergence zones, in which case the older plate will subduct under the younger one.

The movement of the island arcs towards the continent could be possible if, at some point, the ancient Benioff zones dipped toward the present ocean rather than toward the continent, as in most arcs today. This will have resulted in the loss of ocean floor between the arc and the continent, and consequently, in the migration of the arc during spreading episodes.^[2]

The fracture zones in which some active island arcs terminate may be interpreted in terms of plate tectonics as resulting from movement along transform faults,^[4]^[5] which are plate margins where the crust is neither being consumed nor generated. Thus the present location of these inactive island chains is due to the present pattern of lithospheric plates. However, their volcanic history, which indicates that they are fragments of older island arcs, is not necessarily related to the present plate pattern and may be due to differences in position of plate margins in the past.

Tectonic formation

Understanding the source of heat that causes the melting of the mantle was a contentious problem. Researchers believed that the heat was produced through friction at the top of the slab. However, this is unlikely because the viscosity of the asthenosphere decreases with increasing temperature, and at the temperatures required for partial fusion, the asthenosphere would have such a low viscosity that shear melting could not occur.^[6]

It is now believed that water acts as the primary agent that drives partial melting beneath arcs. It has been shown that the amount of water present in the down-going slab is related to the melting temperature of the mantle.^[7] The greater the amount of water present, the more the melting temperature of the mantle is reduced. This water is released during the transformation of minerals as pressure increases, with the mineral carrying the most water being serpentinite.

These metamorphic mineral reactions cause the dehydration of the upper part of the slab as the hydrated slab sinks. Heat is also transferred to it from the surrounding asthenosphere. As heat is transferred to the slab, temperature gradients are established such that the asthenosphere in the vicinity of the slab becomes cooler and more viscous than surrounding areas, particularly near the upper part of the slab. This more viscous asthenosphere is then dragged down with the slab causing less viscous mantle to flow in behind it. It is the interaction of this down-welling mantle with aqueous fluids rising from the sinking slab that is thought to produce partial melting of the mantle as it crosses its wet solidus.^[8] In addition, some melts may result from the up-welling of hot mantle material within the mantle wedge.^[9] If hot material rises quickly enough so that little heat is lost, the reduction in pressure may cause pressure release or decompression partial melting.

On the subducting side of the island arc is a deep and narrow oceanic trench, which is the trace at the Earth's surface of the boundary between the down-going and overriding plates. This trench is created by the downward gravitational pull of the relatively dense subducting plate on the leading edge of the plate. Multiple earthquakes occur along this subduction boundary with the seismic hypocenters located at increasing depth under the island arc: these quakes define the Benioff zone.^[10]^[11]

Island arcs can be formed in intra-oceanic settings, or from the fragments of continental crust that have migrated away from an adjacent continental land mass or at subduction-related volcanoes active at the margins of continents.

Features

Below are some of the generalized features present in most island arcs.

Fore-arc: This region comprises the trench, the accretionary prism, and the fore-arc basin. A bump from the trench in the oceanward side of the system is present (Barbados in the Lesser Antilles is an example). The fore-arc basin forms between the fore-arc ridge and the island arc; it is a region of undisturbed flat-bedded sedimentation.

Trenches: These are the deepest features of ocean basins; the deepest being the Mariana trench (approximately 11,000 m or 36,000 ft). They are formed by flexing of the oceanic lithosphere, developing on the ocean side of island arcs.

Back-arc basin: They are also referred to as marginal seas and are formed in the inner, concave side of island arcs bounded by back-arc ridges. They develop in response to tensional tectonics due to rifting of an existing island arc.

Benioff zone or Wadati-Benioff zone: This is a plane that dips under the overriding plate where intense volcanic activity occurs, which is defined by the location of seismic events below the arc. Earthquakes occur from near surface to ~660 km depth. The dip of Benioff zones ranges from 30° to near vertical.^[12]

An ocean basin may be formed between the continental margin and the island arcs on the concave side of the arc. These basins have a crust which is either oceanic or intermediate between the normal oceanic crust and that typical of continents; heat flow in the basins is higher than in normal continental or oceanic areas.^[2]

Some arcs, such as the Aleutians, pass laterally into the continental shelf on the concave side of the arc,^[13] while most of the arcs are separated from the continental crust.

Movement between two lithospheric plates explains the major features of active island arcs. The island arc and small ocean basin are situated on the overlying plate which meets the descending plate containing normal oceanic crust along the Benioff zone. The sharp bending of the oceanic plate downward produces a trench.^[14]

Volcanic rocks in the island arc

There are generally three volcanic series from which the types of volcanic rock that occur in island arcs are formed:^[15]^[16]

The tholeiitic series – basaltic andesites and andesites.
The calc-alkaline series – andesites.
The alkaline series – subgroups of alkaline basalts and the rare, very high potassium-bearing (i.e. shoshonitic) lavas.

This volcanic series is related to the age of the subduction zone and the depth. The tholeiitic magma series is well represented above young subduction zones formed by magma from relative shallow depth. The calc-alkaline and alkaline series are seen in mature subduction zones, and are related to magma of greater depths. Andesite and basaltic andesite are the most abundant volcanic rock in island arc which is indicative of the calc-alkaline magmas. Some Island arcs have distributed volcanic series as can be seen in the Japanese island arc system where the volcanic rocks change from tholeiite—calc-alkaline—alkaline with increasing distance from the trench.^[15]

Several processes are involved in arc magmatism which gives rise to the great spectrum of rock composition encountered. These processes are, but not limited to, magma mixing, fractionation, variations in the depth and degree of partial melting and assimilation. Therefore, the three volcanic series results in a wide range of rock composition and do not correspond to absolute magma types or source regions.^[6]

List of modern island arcs

Island arc	Country	Trench	Basin or marginal sea	Overriding Plate	Subducting plate
Aleutian Islands	United States	Aleutian Trench	Bering Sea	North American Plate	Pacific Plate
Kuril Islands	Russia	Kuril–Kamchatka Trench	Sea of Okhotsk	North American Plate	Pacific Plate
Japanese Archipelago	Japan	Japan Trench、Nankai Trough	Sea of Japan	North American Plate, Eurasian Plate	Pacific Plate, Philippine Sea Plate
Ryukyu Islands	Japan	Ryukyu Trench	East China Sea (Okinawa Trough)	Eurasian Plate	Philippine Sea Plate
Philippine Islands	Philippines	Philippine Trench	South China Sea, Celebes Sea	Eurasian Plate	Philippine Sea Plate
Sunda Arc	Indonesia	Java Trench	Java Sea, Flores Sea	Eurasian Plate	Australian Plate
Andaman and Nicobar Islands	India	Northern Java Trench	Andaman Sea	Eurasian Plate	Indo-Australian Plate
Izu Islands and Bonin Islands (Ogasawara Islands)	Japan	Izu–Ogasawara Trench		Philippine Sea Plate	Pacific Plate
Mariana Islands	United States	Mariana Trench		Philippine Sea Plate	Pacific Plate
Bismarck Archipelago	Papua New Guinea	New Britain Trench		Pacific Plate	Australian Plate
Solomon Islands (archipelago)	Solomon Islands	San Cristobal Trench		Pacific Plate	Australian Plate
New Hebrides	Vanuatu	New Hebrides Trench		Pacific Plate	Australian Plate
Tonga islands	Tonga	Tonga Trench		Australian Plate	Pacific Plate
Antilles		Puerto Rico Trench	Caribbean	Caribbean Plate	North American Plate, South American Plate
South Sandwich Islands	British Overseas Territory	South Sandwich Trench	Scotia Sea	Scotia Plate	South American Plate
Aegean or Hellenic arc	Greece	Eastern Mediterranean Trench	Aegean Sea	Aegean Sea Plate or Hellenic Plate	African Plate

Examples of ancient island arcs

Remains of former island arcs have been identified at some locations. The table below mention a selection of these.

Island arc	Country	Fate
Chaitenia	Chile, Argentina	Accreted to Patagonia in the Devonian.^[17]
Insular Islands	Canada, United States	Accreted to North America in the Cretaceous.
Intermontane Islands	Canada, United States	Accreted to North America in the Jurassic.

Related Research Articles

Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since about 3.4 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. Plate tectonics came to be accepted by geoscientists after seafloor spreading was validated in the mid-to-late 1960s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subduction</span> A geological process at convergent tectonic plate boundaries where one plate moves under the other

Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere and some continental lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's mantle at convergent boundaries. Where the oceanic lithosphere of a tectonic plate converges with the less dense lithosphere of a second plate, the heavier plate dives beneath the second plate and sinks into the mantle. A region where this process occurs is known as a subduction zone, and its surface expression is known as an arc-trench complex. The process of subduction has created most of the Earth's continental crust. Rates of subduction are typically measured in centimeters per year, with rates of convergence as high as 11 cm/year.

Obduction is a geological process whereby denser oceanic crust is scraped off a descending ocean plate at a convergent plate boundary and thrust on top of an adjacent plate. When oceanic and continental plates converge, normally the denser oceanic crust sinks under the continental crust in the process of subduction. Obduction, which is less common, normally occurs in plate collisions at orogenic belts or back-arc basins.

A convergent boundary is an area on Earth where two or more lithospheric plates collide. One plate eventually slides beneath the other, a process known as subduction. The subduction zone can be defined by a plane where many earthquakes occur, called the Wadati–Benioff zone. These collisions happen on scales of millions to tens of millions of years and can lead to volcanism, earthquakes, orogenesis, destruction of lithosphere, and deformation. Convergent boundaries occur between oceanic-oceanic lithosphere, oceanic-continental lithosphere, and continental-continental lithosphere. The geologic features related to convergent boundaries vary depending on crust types.

Andesite is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predominantly of sodium-rich plagioclase plus pyroxene or hornblende.

Forearc is a plate tectonic term referring to a region in a subduction zone between an oceanic trench and the associated volcanic arc. Forearc regions are present along convergent margins and eponymously form 'in front of' the volcanic arcs that are characteristic of convergent plate margins. A back-arc region is the companion region behind the volcanic arc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanic arc</span> Chain of volcanoes formed above a subducting plate

A volcanic arc is a belt of volcanoes formed above a subducting oceanic tectonic plate, with the belt arranged in an arc shape as seen from above. Volcanic arcs typically parallel an oceanic trench, with the arc located further from the subducting plate than the trench. The oceanic plate is saturated with water, mostly in the form of hydrous minerals such as micas, amphiboles, and serpentines. As the oceanic plate is subducted, it is subjected to increasing pressure and temperature with increasing depth. The heat and pressure break down the hydrous minerals in the plate, releasing water into the overlying mantle. Volatiles such as water drastically lower the melting point of the mantle, causing some of the mantle to melt and form magma at depth under the overriding plate. The magma ascends to form an arc of volcanoes parallel to the subduction zone.

The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, also known as the Transvolcanic Belt and locally as the Sierra Nevada, is an active volcanic belt that covers central-southern Mexico. Several of its highest peaks have snow all year long, and during clear weather, they are visible to a large percentage of those who live on the many high plateaus from which these volcanoes rise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wadati–Benioff zone</span> Planar zone of seismicity corresponding with the down-going slab

A Wadati–Benioff zone is a planar zone of seismicity corresponding with the down-going slab in a subduction zone. Differential motion along the zone produces numerous earthquakes, the foci of which may be as deep as about 670 km (420 mi). The term was named for the two seismologists, Hugo Benioff of the California Institute of Technology and Kiyoo Wadati of the Japan Meteorological Agency, who independently discovered the zones.

Magmatism is the emplacement of magma within and at the surface of the outer layers of a terrestrial planet, which solidifies as igneous rocks. It does so through magmatic activity or igneous activity, the production, intrusion and extrusion of magma or lava. Volcanism is the surface expression of magmatism.

A back-arc basin is a type of geologic basin, found at some convergent plate boundaries. Presently all back-arc basins are submarine features associated with island arcs and subduction zones, with many found in the western Pacific Ocean. Most of them result from tensional forces, caused by a process known as oceanic trench rollback, where a subduction zone moves towards the subducting plate. Back-arc basins were initially an unexpected phenomenon in plate tectonics, as convergent boundaries were expected to universally be zones of compression. However, in 1970, Dan Karig published a model of back-arc basins consistent with plate tectonics.

Adakites are volcanic rocks of intermediate to felsic composition that have geochemical characteristics of magma originally thought to have formed by partial melting of altered basalt that is subducted below volcanic arcs. Most magmas derived in subduction zones come from the mantle above the subducting plate when hydrous fluids are released from minerals that break down in the metamorphosed basalt, rise into the mantle, and initiate partial melting. However, Defant and Drummond recognized that when young oceanic crust is subducted, adakites are typically produced in the arc. They postulated that when young oceanic crust is subducted it is "warmer" than crust that is typically subducted. The warmer crust enables melting of the metamorphosed subducted basalt rather than the mantle above. Experimental work by several researchers has verified the geochemical characteristics of "slab melts" and the contention that melts can form from young and therefore warmer crust in subduction zones.

In geology, a slab window is a gap that forms in a subducted oceanic plate when a mid-ocean ridge meets with a subduction zone and plate divergence at the ridge and convergence at the subduction zone continue, causing the ridge to be subducted. Formation of a slab window produces an area where the crust of the over-riding plate is lacking a rigid lithospheric mantle component and thus is exposed to hot asthenospheric mantle. This produces anomalous thermal, chemical and physical effects in the mantle that can dramatically change the over-riding plate by interrupting the established tectonic and magmatic regimes. In general, the data used to identify possible slab windows comes from seismic tomography and heat flow studies.

A subduction zone is a region of the Earth's crust where one tectonic plate moves under another tectonic plate; oceanic crust gets recycled back into the mantle and continental crust gets produced by the formation of arc magmas. Arc magmas account for more than 20% of terrestrially produced magmas and are produced by the dehydration of minerals within the subducting slab as it descends into the mantle and are accreted onto the base of the overriding continental plate. Subduction zones host a unique variety of rock types formed by the high-pressure, low-temperature conditions a subducting slab encounters during its descent. The metamorphic conditions the slab passes through in this process generates and alters water bearing (hydrous) mineral phases, releasing water into the mantle. This water lowers the melting point of mantle rock, initiating melting. Understanding the timing and conditions in which these dehydration reactions occur, is key to interpreting mantle melting, volcanic arc magmatism, and the formation of continental crust.

A continental arc is a type of volcanic arc occurring as an "arc-shape" topographic high region along a continental margin. The continental arc is formed at an active continental margin where two tectonic plates meet, and where one plate has continental crust and the other oceanic crust along the line of plate convergence, and a subduction zone develops. The magmatism and petrogenesis of continental crust are complicated: in essence, continental arcs reflect a mixture of oceanic crust materials, mantle wedge and continental crust materials.

Flat slab subduction is characterized by a low subduction angle beyond the seismogenic layer and a resumption of normal subduction far from the trench. A slab refers to the subducting lower plate. A broader definition of flat slab subduction includes any shallowly dipping lower plate, as in western Mexico. Flat slab subduction is associated with the pinching out of the asthenosphere, an inland migration of arc magmatism, and an eventual cessation of arc magmatism. The coupling of the flat slab to the upper plate is thought to change the style of deformation occurring on the upper plate's surface and form basement-cored uplifts like the Rocky Mountains. The flat slab also may hydrate the lower continental lithosphere and be involved in the formation of economically important ore deposits. During the subduction, a flat slab itself may deform or buckle, causing sedimentary hiatus in marine sediments on the slab. The failure of a flat slab is associated with ignimbritic volcanism and the reverse migration of arc volcanism. Multiple working hypotheses about the cause of flat slabs are subduction of thick, buoyant oceanic crust (15–20 km) and trench rollback accompanying a rapidly overriding upper plate and enhanced trench suction. The west coast of South America has two of the largest flat slab subduction zones. Flat slab subduction is occurring at 10% of subduction zones.

Divergent double subduction, also called outward dipping double-sided subduction, is a special type of subduction process in which two parallel subduction zones with different directions are developed on the same oceanic plate. In conventional plate tectonics theory, an oceanic plate subducts under another plate and new oceanic crust is generated somewhere else, commonly along the other side of the same plates However, in divergent double subduction, the oceanic plate subducts on two sides. This results in the closure of ocean and arc–arc collision.

The Aleutian subduction zone is a 2,500 mi (4,000 km) long convergent boundary between the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate, that extends from the Alaska Range to the Kamchatka Peninsula. Here, the Pacific Plate is being subducted underneath the North American Plate and the rate of subduction changes from west to east from 7.5 to 5.1 cm per year. The Aleutian subduction zone includes two prominent features, the Aleutian Arc and the Aleutian Trench. The Aleutian Arc was created via volcanic eruptions from dehydration of the subducting slab at ~100 km depth. The Aleutian Trench is a narrow and deep morphology that occurs between the two converging plates as the subducting slab dives beneath the overriding plate.

The Chile Ridge, also known as the Chile Rise, is a submarine oceanic ridge formed by the divergent plate boundary between the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate. It extends from the triple junction of the Nazca, Pacific, and Antarctic plates to the Southern coast of Chile. The Chile Ridge is easy to recognize on the map, as the ridge is divided into several segmented fracture zones which are perpendicular to the ridge segments, showing an orthogonal shape toward the spreading direction. The total length of the ridge segments is about 550–600 km.

Magmatism along strike-slip faults is the process of rock melting, magma ascent and emplacement, associated with the tectonics and geometry of various strike-slip settings, most commonly occurring along transform boundaries at mid-ocean ridge spreading centres and at strike-slip systems parallel to oblique subduction zones. Strike-slip faults have a direct effect on magmatism. They can either induce magmatism, act as a conduit to magmatism and magmatic flow, or block magmatic flow. In contrast, magmatism can also directly impact on strike-slip faults by determining fault formation, propagation and slip. Both magma and strike-slip faults coexist and affect one another.

References

↑ Taylor, S. R. (1967). "The origin and growth of continents". Tectonophysics . 4 (1): 17–34. Bibcode:1967Tectp...4...17T. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(67)90056-x. ISSN 0040-1951.
1 2 3 4 Mitchell, Andrew H.; Reading, Harold G. (1971). "Evolution of Island Arcs". The Journal of Geology. 79 (3): 253–284. Bibcode:1971JG.....79..253M. doi:10.1086/627627. ISSN 0022-1376. S2CID 129378943.
↑ FRANK, F. C. (1968). "Curvature of Island Arcs". Nature. 220 (5165): 363. Bibcode:1968Natur.220..363F. doi: 10.1038/220363a0 . ISSN 0028-0836.
↑ WILSON, J. TUZO (1965). "A New Class of Faults and their Bearing on Continental Drift". Nature. 207 (4995): 343–347. Bibcode:1965Natur.207..343W. doi:10.1038/207343a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4294401.
↑ Isacks, Bryan; Oliver, Jack; Sykes, Lynn R. (1968-09-15). "Seismology and the new global tectonics". Journal of Geophysical Research. 73 (18): 5855–5899. Bibcode:1968JGR....73.5855I. doi:10.1029/jb073i018p05855. ISSN 0148-0227.
1 2 England, Richard W. (2009). "Philip Kearey, Keith A. Klepeis and Frederick J. Vine: Global tectonics". Marine Geophysical Researches. 30 (4): 293–294. Bibcode:2009MarGR..30..293E. doi:10.1007/s11001-010-9082-0. ISSN 0025-3235. S2CID 129487054.
↑ Stolper, Edward; Newman, Sally (1994). "The role of water in the petrogenesis of Mariana trough magmas". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 121 (3–4): 293–325. Bibcode:1994E&PSL.121..293S. doi:10.1016/0012-821x(94)90074-4. ISSN 0012-821X.
↑ Tatsumi, Yoshiyuki (1989-04-10). "Migration of fluid phases and genesis of basalt magmas in subduction zones". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 94 (B4): 4697–4707. Bibcode:1989JGR....94.4697T. doi:10.1029/JB094iB04p04697. ISSN 2156-2202.
↑ Sisson, T. W.; Bronto, S. (1998). "Evidence for pressure-release melting beneath magmatic arcs from basalt at Galunggung, Indonesia". Nature. 391 (6670): 883–886. Bibcode:1998Natur.391..883S. doi:10.1038/36087. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4401646.
↑ Toksöz, M. Nafi (1975). "The Subduction of the Lithosphere". Scientific American. 233 (5): 88–98. Bibcode:1975SciAm.233e..88T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1175-88. ISSN 0036-8733.
↑ Hacker, Bradley R.; Peacock, Simon M.; Abers, Geoffrey A.; Holloway, Stephen D. (2003). "Subduction factory 2. Are intermediate-depth earthquakes in subducting slabs linked to metamorphic dehydration reactions?". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 108 (B1): 2030. Bibcode:2003JGRB..108.2030H. doi: 10.1029/2001jb001129 . ISSN 0148-0227.
↑ Condie, Kent C. (1987), "Benioff zone", Structural Geology and Tectonics, Encyclopedia of Earth Science, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 29–33, doi:10.1007/3-540-31080-0_7, ISBN 978-0442281250
↑ Menard, H. W. (1967-06-15). "Transitional types of crust under small ocean basins". Journal of Geophysical Research. 72 (12): 3061–3073. Bibcode:1967JGR....72.3061M. doi:10.1029/jz072i012p03061. ISSN 0148-0227.
↑ Oxburgh, E. R.; Turcotte, D. L. (1970). "Thermal Structure of Island Arcs". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 81 (6): 1665. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1970)81[1665:tsoia]2.0.co;2. ISSN 0016-7606.
1 2 Gill, J.B. (1982). "Andesites: Orogenic andesites and related rocks". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 46 (12): 2688. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(82)90392-1. ISSN 0016-7037.
↑ Hall, A. (1982). "R. S. Thorpe, Editor. Andesites: Orogenic Andesites and Related Rocks. Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, and Singapore (John Wiley and Sons), 1982. xiii+724 pp., 277 figs. Price £59·50". Mineralogical Magazine. 46 (341): 532–533. doi:10.1180/minmag.1982.046.341.31. ISSN 0026-461X. S2CID 129767570.
↑ Hervé, Francisco; Calderón, Mauricio; Fanning, Mark; Pankhurst, Robert; Rapela, Carlos W.; Quezada, Paulo (2018). "The country rocks of Devonian magmatism in the North Patagonian Massif and Chaitenia". Andean Geology . 45 (3): 301–317. doi: 10.5027/andgeoV45n3-3117 . hdl: 11336/81577 .

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[1] Taylor, S. R. (1967). "The origin and growth of continents". Tectonophysics . 4 (1): 17–34. Bibcode:1967Tectp...4...17T. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(67)90056-x. ISSN 0040-1951.

[:0-2] 1 2 3 4 Mitchell, Andrew H.; Reading, Harold G. (1971). "Evolution of Island Arcs". The Journal of Geology. 79 (3): 253–284. Bibcode:1971JG.....79..253M. doi:10.1086/627627. ISSN 0022-1376. S2CID 129378943.

[3] FRANK, F. C. (1968). "Curvature of Island Arcs". Nature. 220 (5165): 363. Bibcode:1968Natur.220..363F. doi: 10.1038/220363a0 . ISSN 0028-0836.

[4] WILSON, J. TUZO (1965). "A New Class of Faults and their Bearing on Continental Drift". Nature. 207 (4995): 343–347. Bibcode:1965Natur.207..343W. doi:10.1038/207343a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4294401.

[5] Isacks, Bryan; Oliver, Jack; Sykes, Lynn R. (1968-09-15). "Seismology and the new global tectonics". Journal of Geophysical Research. 73 (18): 5855–5899. Bibcode:1968JGR....73.5855I. doi:10.1029/jb073i018p05855. ISSN 0148-0227.

[:1-6] 1 2 England, Richard W. (2009). "Philip Kearey, Keith A. Klepeis and Frederick J. Vine: Global tectonics". Marine Geophysical Researches. 30 (4): 293–294. Bibcode:2009MarGR..30..293E. doi:10.1007/s11001-010-9082-0. ISSN 0025-3235. S2CID 129487054.

[7] Stolper, Edward; Newman, Sally (1994). "The role of water in the petrogenesis of Mariana trough magmas". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 121 (3–4): 293–325. Bibcode:1994E&PSL.121..293S. doi:10.1016/0012-821x(94)90074-4. ISSN 0012-821X.

[8] Tatsumi, Yoshiyuki (1989-04-10). "Migration of fluid phases and genesis of basalt magmas in subduction zones". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 94 (B4): 4697–4707. Bibcode:1989JGR....94.4697T. doi:10.1029/JB094iB04p04697. ISSN 2156-2202.

[9] Sisson, T. W.; Bronto, S. (1998). "Evidence for pressure-release melting beneath magmatic arcs from basalt at Galunggung, Indonesia". Nature. 391 (6670): 883–886. Bibcode:1998Natur.391..883S. doi:10.1038/36087. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4401646.

[10] Toksöz, M. Nafi (1975). "The Subduction of the Lithosphere". Scientific American. 233 (5): 88–98. Bibcode:1975SciAm.233e..88T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1175-88. ISSN 0036-8733.

[11] Hacker, Bradley R.; Peacock, Simon M.; Abers, Geoffrey A.; Holloway, Stephen D. (2003). "Subduction factory 2. Are intermediate-depth earthquakes in subducting slabs linked to metamorphic dehydration reactions?". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 108 (B1): 2030. Bibcode:2003JGRB..108.2030H. doi: 10.1029/2001jb001129 . ISSN 0148-0227.

[12] Condie, Kent C. (1987), "Benioff zone", Structural Geology and Tectonics, Encyclopedia of Earth Science, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 29–33, doi:10.1007/3-540-31080-0_7, ISBN 978-0442281250

[13] Menard, H. W. (1967-06-15). "Transitional types of crust under small ocean basins". Journal of Geophysical Research. 72 (12): 3061–3073. Bibcode:1967JGR....72.3061M. doi:10.1029/jz072i012p03061. ISSN 0148-0227.

[14] Oxburgh, E. R.; Turcotte, D. L. (1970). "Thermal Structure of Island Arcs". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 81 (6): 1665. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1970)81[1665:tsoia]2.0.co;2. ISSN 0016-7606.

[:2-15] 1 2 Gill, J.B. (1982). "Andesites: Orogenic andesites and related rocks". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 46 (12): 2688. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(82)90392-1. ISSN 0016-7037.

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