Clinical neuropsychology

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The Nightmare, oil on canvas by John Henry Fuseli

Clinical neuropsychology is a sub-field of cognitive science and psychology concerned with the applied science of brain-behaviour relationships. Clinical neuropsychologists use this knowledge in the assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and or rehabilitation of patients across the lifespan with neurological, medical, neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions, as well as other cognitive and learning disorders. [1] The branch of neuropsychology associated with children and young people is called pediatric neuropsychology.

Contents

Clinical neuropsychology is a specialized form of clinical psychology [2] with stringent laws in place to maintain evidence as a focal point of treatment and research within the field. [2] The assessment and rehabilitation of neuropsychopathologies is the focus for a clinical neuropsychologist. [2] A clinical neuropsychologist must be able to determine whether a symptom(s) was caused by an injury to the head. This is done by interviewing the patient, then determining what actions should be taken to best help the patient. [2] Another duty of a clinical neuropsychologist is to find cerebral abnormalities and possible correlations. [2] Evidence based practice in both research and treatment is paramount to appropriate clinical neuropsychological practice. [2]

Assessment is primarily by way of neuropsychological tests, but also includes patient history, qualitative observation and may draw on findings from neuroimaging and other diagnostic medical procedures. Clinical neuropsychology requires an in-depth knowledge of: neuroanatomy, neurobiology, psychopharmacology and neuropathology.[ medical citation needed ]

History

During the late 1800s, brain–behavior relationships were interpreted by European physicians who observed and identified behavioural syndromes that were related with focal brain dysfunction. [3] : 3–27 

Clinical neuropsychology is a fairly new practice in comparison to other specialty fields in psychology with history going back to the 1960s. [4] The specialty focus of clinical neuropsychology evolved slowly into a more defined whole as interest grew. [4] Threads from neurology, clinical psychology, psychiatry, cognitive psychology, and psychometrics all have been woven together to create the intricate tapestry of clinical neuropsychology, a practice which is very much so still evolving. [4] The history of clinical neuropsychology is long and complicated due to its ties to so many older practices. [4] Researchers like Thomas Willis (1621–1675) who has been credited with creating neurology, John Hughlings Jackson (1835–1911) who theorized that cognitive processes occurred in specific parts of the brain, Paul Broca (1824–1880) and Karl Wernicke (1848–1905) who studied the human brain in relation to psychopathology, Jean Martin Charcot (1825–1893) who apprenticed Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) who created the psychoanalytic theory all contributed to clinical medicine which later contributed to clinical neuropsychology. [4] The field of psychometrics contributed to clinical neuropsychology through individuals such as Francis Galton (1822–1911) who collected quantitative data on physical and sensory characteristics, Karl Pearson (1857–1936) who established the statistics which psychology now relies on, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) who created the first psychology lab, his student Charles Spearman (1863–1945) who furthered statistics through discoveries like factor analysis, Alfred Binet (1857–1911) and his apprentice Theodore Simon (1872–1961) who together made the Binet-Simon scale of intellectual development, and Jean Piaget (1896–1980) who studied child development. [4] Studies in intelligence testing made by Lewis Terman (1877–1956) who updated the Binet-Simon scale to the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale, Henry Goddard (1866–1957) who developed different classification scales, and Robert Yerkes (1876–1956) who was in charge of the Army Alpha and Beta tests also all contributed to where clinical neuropsychology is today. [4]

Clinical neuropsychology focuses on the brain and goes back to the beginning of the 20th century. [5] As a clinician a clinical neuropsychologist offers their services by addressing three steps; assessment, diagnosis, and treatment. [5] The term clinical neuropsychologist was first made by Sir William Osler on April 16, 1913. [5] While clinical neuropsychology was not a focus until the 20th century evidence of brain and behavior treatment and studies are seen as far back as the neolithic area when trephination, a crude surgery in which a piece of the skull is removed, has been observed in skulls. [5] As a profession, clinical neuropsychology is a subspecialty beneath clinical psychology. [5] During World War I (1914–1918) the early term shell shock was first observed in soldiers who survived the war. [5] This was the beginning of efforts to understand traumatic events and how they affected people. [5] During the Great Depression (1929–1941) further stressors caused shell shock like symptoms to emerge. [5] In World War II (1939–1945) the term shell shock was changed to battle fatigue and clinical neuropsychology became even more involved with attempting to solve the puzzle of peoples' continued signs of trauma and distress. [5] The Veterans Administration or VA was created in 1930 which increased the call for clinical neuropsychologists and by extension the need for training. [5] The Korean (1950–1953) and Vietnam Wars (1960–1973) further solidified the need for treatment by trained clinical neuropsychologists. [5] In 1985 the term post-traumatic stress disorder or PTSD was coined and the understanding that traumatic events of all kinds could cause PTSD started to evolve. [5]

The relationship between human behavior and the brain is the focus of clinical neuropsychology as defined by Meir in 1974. [6] There are two subdivisions of clinical neuropsychology which draw much focus; organic and environmental natures. [6] Ralph M. Reitan, Arthur L. Benton, and A.R. Luria are all past neuropsychologists whom believed and studied the organic nature of clinical neuropsychology. [6] Alexander Luria is the Russian neuropsychologist responsible for the origination of clinical psychoneurological assessment after WWII. [7] Building upon his originative contribution connecting the voluntary and involuntary functions influencing behavior, Luria further conjoins the methodical structures and associations of neurological processes in the brain. [8] Luria developed the 'combined motor method' to measure thought processes based on the reaction times when three simultaneous tasks are appointed that require a verbal response. [7] On the other side, environmental nature of clinical neuropsychology did not appear until more recently and is characterized by treatments such as behavior therapy. [6] The relationship between physical brain abnormalities and the presentation of psychopathology is not completely understood, but this is one of the questions which clinical neuropsychologists hope to answer in time. [6] In 1861 the debate over human potentiality versus localization began. [6] The two sides argued over how human behavior presented in the brain. [6] Paul Broca postulated that cognitive problems could be caused by physical damage to specific parts of the brain based on a case study of his in which he found a lesion on the brain of a deceased patient who had presented the symptom of being unable to speak, that portion of the brain is now known as Broca's Area. [6] In 1874 Carl Wernicke also made a similar observation in a case study involving a patient with a brain lesion whom was unable to comprehend speech, the part of the brain with the lesion is now deemed Wernicke's Area. [6] Both Broca and Wernicke believed and studied the theory of localization. [6] On the other hand, equal potentiality theorists believed that brain function was not based on a single piece of the brain but rather on the brain as a whole. [6] Marie J.P Flourens conducted animal studies in which he found that the amount of brain tissue damaged directly affected the amount that behavior ability was altered or damaged. [6] Kurt Goldstein observed the same idea as Flourens except in veterans who had fought in World War I. [6] In the end, despite all of the disagreement, neither theory completely explains the human brains complexity. [6] Thomas Hughlings Jackson created a theory which was thought to be a possible solution. [6] Jackson believed that both potentiality and localization were in part correct and that behavior was made by multiple parts of the brain working collectively to cause behaviors, and Luria (1966–1973) furthered Jackson's theory. [6]

The job

Clinical Neuropsychologist
Occupation
NamesClinical psychologist
Occupation type
 Specialty
Activity sectors
 Clinical Psychology, Medicine
Description
Education required
 Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.)

Or

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)
Fields of
employment
 Hospitals, clinics
Related jobs
 Neurologist, Psychiatrist

Neuropsychologists commonly work in hospitals [9] There are three main variations in which a clinical neuropsychologist may work at a hospital; as an employee, consultant, or independent practitioner. [9] A clinical neuropsychologist working as an employee of a hospital would receive a salary, benefits, and have a contract for employment. [9] The hospital is in charge of legal and financial responsibilities for their neuropsychologists. [9] The second option of working as a consultant implies that the clinical neuropsychologist is part of a private practice or is a member of a physicians group. [9] In this scenario, the clinical neuropsychologist may work in the hospital like the employee of the hospital but all financial and legal responsibilities go through the group which the clinical neuropsychologist is a part of. [9] The third option is to be an independent practitioner, who works alone and may even have their office outside of the hospital or rent a room in the hospital. [9] In the third case, the clinical neuropsychologist is completely on their own and in charge of their own financial and legal responsibilities. [9]

Assessment

Assessments are used in clinical neuropsychology to find brain psychopathologies of the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional variety. [10] Physical evidence is not always readily visible so clinical neuropsychologists must rely on assessments to tell them the extent of the damage. [10] The cognitive strengths and weaknesses of the patient are assessed to help narrow down the possible causes of the brain pathology. [10] A clinical neuropsychologist is expected to help educate the patient on what is happening to them so that the patient can understand how to work with their own cognitive deficits and strengths. [10] An assessment should accomplish many goals such as; gauge consequences of impairments to quality of life, compile symptoms and the change in symptoms over time, and assess cognitive strengths and weaknesses. [10] Accumulation of the knowledge earned from the assessment is then dedicated to developing a treatment plan based on the patient's individual needs. [10] An assessment can also help the clinical neuropsychologist gage the impact of medications and neurosurgery on a patient. [10] Behavioral neurology and neuropsychology tools can be standardized or psychometric tests and observational data collected on the patient to help build an understanding of the patient and what is happening with them. [10] There are essential prerequisites which must be present in a patient in order for the assessment to be effective; concentration, comprehension, and motivation and effort. [10]

Lezak lists six primary reasons neuropsychological assessments are carried out: diagnosis, patient care and its planning, treatment planning, treatment evaluation, research and forensic neuropsychology. [11] : 5–10  To conduct a comprehensive assessment will typically take several hours and may need to be conducted over more than a single visit. Even the use of a screening battery covering several cognitive domains may take 1.5–2 hours. At the commencement of the assessment it is important to establish a good rapport with the patient and ensure they understand the nature and aims of the assessment. [12]

Neuropsychological assessment can be carried out from two basic perspectives, depending on the purpose of assessment. These methods are normative or individual. Normative assessment, involves the comparison of the patient's performance against a representative population. This method may be appropriate in investigation of an adult onset brain insult such as traumatic brain injury or stroke. Individual assessment may involve serial assessment, to establish whether declines beyond those which are expected to occur with normal aging, as with dementia or another neurodegenerative condition. [11] : 88 

Assessment can be further subdivided into sub-sections[ clarification needed ]:

History taking

Neuropsychological assessments usually commence with a clinical interview as a means of collecting a history, which is relevant to the interpretation of any later neuropsychological tests. In addition, this interview provides qualitative information about the patient's ability to act in a socially apt manner, organise and communicate information effectively and provide an indication as to the patient's mood, insight and motivation. [13] : 58  It is only within the context of a patient's history that an accurate interpretation of their test data and thus a diagnosis can be made. [13] : 44  The clinical interview should take place in a quiet area free from distractions. Important elements of a history include demographic information, description of presenting problem, medical history (including any childhood or developmental problems, psychiatric and psychological history), educational and occupational history (and if any legal history and military history.) [13] : 47–58 

Selection of neuropsychological tests

It is not uncommon for patients to be anxious about being tested; explaining that tests are designed so that they will challenge everyone and that no one is expected to answer all questions correctly may be helpful. [12] An important consideration of any neuropsychological assessment is a basic coverage of all major cognitive functions. The most efficient way to achieve this is the administration of a battery of tests covering: attention, visual perception and reasoning, learning and memory, verbal function, construction, concept formation, executive function, motor abilities and emotional status. Beyond this basic battery, choices of neuropsychological tests to be administered are mainly made on the basis of which cognitive functions need to be evaluated in order to fulfill the assessment objectives. [14]

Report writing

Following a neuropsychological assessment it is important to complete a comprehensive report based on the assessment conducted. The report is for other clinicians, as well as the patient and their family, so it is important to avoid jargon or the use of language which has different clinical and lay meanings (e.g. intellectually disabled as the correct clinical term for an IQ below 70, but offensive in lay language). [13] : 62  The report should cover background to the referral, relevant history, reasons for assessment, neuropsychologists observations of patient's behaviour, test administered and results for cognitive domains tested, any additional findings (e.g. questionnaires for mood) and finish the report with a summary and recommendations. In the summary it is important to comment on what the profile of results indicates regarding the referral question. The recommendations section contains practical information to assist the patient and family, or improve the management of the patient's condition. [15]

Educational requirements of different countries

The educational requirements for becoming a clinical neuropsychologist differ between countries. In some countries it may be necessary to complete a clinical psychology degree, before specialising with further studies in clinical neuropsychology, while other countries offer clinical neuropsychology courses to students who have completed 4 years of psychology studies. All clinical neuropsychologists require a postgraduate qualification, whether it be a Masters or Doctorate (PhD, PsyD or D.Psych).[ citation needed ]

Australia

To become a clinical neuropsychologist in Australia requires the completion of a 3-year Australian Psychology Accreditation Council (APAC) approved undergraduate degree in psychology, a 1-year psychology honours, followed by a 2-year Masters or 3-year Doctorate of Psychology (D.Psych) in clinical neuropsychology. These courses involve coursework (lectures, tutorials, practicals etc.), supervised practice placements and the completion of a research thesis. Masters and D.Psych courses involve the same amount of coursework units, but differ in the amount of supervised placements undertaken and length of research thesis. Masters courses require a minimum of 1,000 hours (125 days) and D.Psych courses require a minimum of 1,500 hours (200 days), it is mandatory that these placements expose students to acute neurology/neurosurgery, rehabilitation, psychiatric, geriatric and paediatric populations. [16]

Canada

To become a clinical neuropsychologist in Canada requires the completion of a 4-year honours degree in psychology and a 4-year doctoral degree in clinical neuropsychology. Often a 2-year master's degree is required before commencing the doctoral degree. The doctoral degree involves coursework and practical experience (practicum and internship). Practicum is between 600 and 1,000 hours of practical application of skills acquired in the program. At least 300 hours must be supervised, face-to-face client contact. The practicum is intended to prepare students for the internship/residency. Internships/residencies are a year long experience in which the student functions as a neuropsychologist, under supervision. Currently, there are 3 CPA-accredited Clinical Neuropsychology internships/residencies in Canada, [17] although other unaccredited ones exist. Prior to commencing the internship students must have completed all doctoral coursework, received approval for their thesis proposal (if not completed the thesis) and the 600 hours of practicum. [18]

United Kingdom

To become a clinical neuropsychologist in the UK, requires prior qualification as a clinical or educational psychologist as recognised by the Health Professions Council, followed by further postgraduate study in clinical neuropsychology. In its entirety, education to become a clinical neuropsychologist in the UK consists of the completion of a 3-year British Psychological Society accredited undergraduate degree in psychology, 3-year Doctorate in clinical (usually D.Clin.Psy.) or educational psychology (D.Ed.Psy.), followed by a 1-year Masters (MSc) or 9-month Postgraduate Diploma (PgDip) in Clinical Neuropsychology. [19] The British Psychological Division of Counselling Psychology are also currently offering training to its members in order to ensure that they can apply to be registered Neuropsychologists also.[ citation needed ]

United States

In order to become a clinical neuropsychologist in the US and be compliant with Houston Conference Guidelines, the completion of a 4-year undergraduate degree in psychology and a 4 to 5-year doctoral degree (PsyD or PhD) must be completed. After the completion of the doctoral coursework, training and dissertation, students must complete a 1-year internship, followed by an additional 2 years of supervised residency. The doctoral degree, internship and residency must all be undertaken at American Psychological Association approved institutions. [20] After the completion of all training, students must apply to become licensed in their state to practice psychology. The American Board of Clinical Neuropsychology, The American Board of Professional Neuropsychology, and The American Board of Pediatric Neuropsychology all award board certification to neuropsychologists that demonstrate competency in specific areas of neuropsychology, by reviewing the neuropsychologist's training, experience, submitted case samples, and successfully completing both written and oral examinations. Although these requirements are standard according to Houston Conference Guidelines, even these guidelines have stated that the completion of all of these requirements is still aspirational, and other ways of achieving clinical neuropsychologist status are possible.

Journals

The following represents an (incomplete) listing of significant journals in or related to the field of clinical neuropsychology.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuropsychology</span> Study of the brain related to specific psychological processes and behaviors

Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology concerned with how a person's cognition and behavior are related to the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Professionals in this branch of psychology focus on how injuries or illnesses of the brain affect cognitive and behavioral functions.

Rehabilitation of sensory and cognitive function typically involves methods for retraining neural pathways or training new neural pathways to regain or improve neurocognitive functioning that have been diminished by disease or trauma. The main objective outcome for rehabilitation is to assist in regaining physical abilities and improving performance. Three common neuropsychological problems treatable with rehabilitation are attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), concussion, and spinal cord injury. Rehabilitation research and practices are a fertile area for clinical neuropsychologists, rehabilitation psychologists, and others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuropsychological test</span> Assess neurological function associated with certain behaviors and brain damage

Neuropsychological tests are specifically designed tasks that are used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular brain structure or pathway. Tests are used for research into brain function and in a clinical setting for the diagnosis of deficits. They usually involve the systematic administration of clearly defined procedures in a formal environment. Neuropsychological tests are typically administered to a single person working with an examiner in a quiet office environment, free from distractions. As such, it can be argued that neuropsychological tests at times offer an estimate of a person's peak level of cognitive performance. Neuropsychological tests are a core component of the process of conducting neuropsychological assessment, along with personal, interpersonal and contextual factors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cognitive neuropsychology</span>

Cognitive neuropsychology is a branch of cognitive psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes. Cognitive psychology is the science that looks at how mental processes are responsible for the cognitive abilities to store and produce new memories, produce language, recognize people and objects, as well as our ability to reason and problem solve. Cognitive neuropsychology places a particular emphasis on studying the cognitive effects of brain injury or neurological illness with a view to inferring models of normal cognitive functioning. Evidence is based on case studies of individual brain damaged patients who show deficits in brain areas and from patients who exhibit double dissociations. Double dissociations involve two patients and two tasks. One patient is impaired at one task but normal on the other, while the other patient is normal on the first task and impaired on the other. For example, patient A would be poor at reading printed words while still being normal at understanding spoken words, while the patient B would be normal at understanding written words and be poor at understanding spoken words. Scientists can interpret this information to explain how there is a single cognitive module for word comprehension. From studies like these, researchers infer that different areas of the brain are highly specialised. Cognitive neuropsychology can be distinguished from cognitive neuroscience, which is also interested in brain-damaged patients, but is particularly focused on uncovering the neural mechanisms underlying cognitive processes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alexander Luria</span> Russian neuropsychologist (1902-1977)

Alexander Romanovich Luria was a Soviet neuropsychologist, often credited as a father of modern neuropsychology. He developed an extensive and original battery of neuropsychological tests during his clinical work with brain-injured victims of World War II, which are still used in various forms. He made an in-depth analysis of the functioning of various brain regions and integrative processes of the brain in general. Luria's magnum opus, Higher Cortical Functions in Man (1962), is a much-used psychological textbook which has been translated into many languages and which he supplemented with The Working Brain in 1973.

Arthur Lester Benton was a neuropsychologist and Emeritus Professor of Neurology and Psychology at the University of Iowa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuropsychological assessment</span> Testing to identify brain impairments, their severity & location

The attempts to derive the links between the damage to specific brain areas and problems in behaviour are known throughout the history for 3 millennia. However, the first systematic neuropsychological assessment and a battery of the behavioural tasks to investigate specific aspects of behavioural regulation was developed by Alexander Luria in 1942-1948. Luria was working with big samples of brain-injured Russian soldiers during and after the second World War. Among many insights from Luria's rehabilitation practice and observations, was the fundamental discovery of the involvement of frontal lobes of the cortex in plasticity, initiation, planning and organization of behaviour. His Go/no-go task, which was one of the tasks screening for the frontal lobe damage, "count by 7", hands-clutching, clock-drawing task, drawing of repeatitive patterns, word associations and categories recall and others became standard components of neuropsychological assessment and mental status screening. Considering the originality and multiplicity of neuropsychological components offered by Alexander Luria, he is recognized as a father of neuropsychological assessment. Alexander Luria's neuropsychological battery was adapted in the United States in the form of Luria-Nebraska neuropsychological battery in 1970s. Then the tasks used in this battery were borrowed in more modern neuropsychological batteries and in the Mini–mental state examination test for screening of demenia.

Edith F. Kaplan was an American psychologist. She was a pioneer of neuropsychological tests and did most of her work at the Boston VA Hospital. Kaplan is known for her promotion of clinical neuropsychology as a specialty area in psychology. She examined brain-behavioral relationships in aphasia, apraxia, developmental issues in clinical neuropsychology, as well as normal and abnormal aging. Kaplan helped develop a new method of assessing brain function with neuropsychological assessment, called "The Boston Process Approach."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Muriel Lezak</span> American neuropsychologist (1927–2021)

Muriel Elaine Deutsch Lezak was an American neuropsychologist best known for her book Neuropsychological Assessment, widely accepted as the standard in the field. Her work has centred on the research, assessment, and rehabilitation of brain injury. Lezak was a professor of neurology at the Oregon Health and Science University School of Medicine.

Raymond S. Dean was an American psychologist and George and Frances Ball Distinguished Professor of Neuropsychology and Professor of Psychology at Ball State University.

Pediatric neuropsychology is a sub-speciality within the field of clinical neuropsychology that studies the relationship between brain health and behaviour in children. Many pediatric neuropsychologists are involved in teaching, research, supervision, and training of undergraduate and graduate students in the field.

The Luria–Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (LNNB) is a standardized test that identifies neuropsychological deficiencies by measuring functioning on fourteen scales. It evaluates learning, experience, and cognitive skills. The test was created by Charles Golden in 1981 and based on previous work by Alexander Luria that emphasizes a qualitative instead of quantitative approach. The original, adult version is for use with ages fifteen and over, while the Luria–Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery for Children (LNNB-C) can be used with ages eight to twelve; both tests take two to three hours to administer. The LNNB has 269 items divided among fourteen scales, which are motor, rhythm, tactile, visual, receptive speech, expressive speech, writing, reading, arithmetic, memory, intellectual processes, pathognomonic, left hemisphere, and right hemisphere. The test is graded on scales that are correlated to regions of the brain to help identify which region may be damaged. The Luria–Nebraska has been found to be reliable and valid; it is comparable in this sense to other neuropsychological tests in its ability to differentiate between brain damage and mental illness. The test is used to diagnose and determine the nature of cognitive impairment, including the location of the brain damage, to understand the patient's brain structure and abilities, to pinpoint causes of behavior, and to help plan treatment.

The Division of Clinical Neuropsychology of the American Psychological Association is a scientific and professional organization of psychologists interested in neuropsychology and clinical neuropsychology, the study of brain-behavior relationships with a focus on applying this knowledge to human problems. The Division of Clinical Neuropsychology was established as a specialty organization within APA in 1980 and was formally recognized by APA in 1996 via the Committee for the Recognition of Specialties and Proficiencies in Professional Psychology". It has become one of APA's largest and most active divisions with over 4200 members worldwide. The Division of Clinical Neuropsychology has been instrumental in the development of clinical neuropsychology as a psychological specialty. This organization helped to establish policies and standards for practice and training in clinical neuropsychology as well as developed the definition of a clinical neuropsychologist, which has been used as a foundation by other neuropsychological organizations.

The Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (WTAR) is a neuropsychological assessment tool used to provide a measure of premorbid intelligence, the degree of Intellectual function prior to the onset of illness or disease.


The Boston Process Approach is a neurological assessment tool developed by Edith Kaplan and her colleagues, Harold Goodglass, Nelson Butters, Laird Cermak, and Norman Geschwind at the Boston Veterans Medical Center. The main purpose of the Boston Process Approach is to assess brain damage as well as cognitive impairments in patients through a series of tests that are related to memory, attention, intelligence, and other aspects of information processing. This approach is one of the more flexible and qualitative neurological assessments because it emphasizes how a patient performs a task instead of whether they succeeded or failed at it.

Ralph M. Reitan was an American neuropsychologist and one of the founding fathers of American clinical neuropsychology having brought the notion of brain-behavior relationships to the forefront of the field. He is best known for his role in developing the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery and his strong belief in empiricism and evidence-based practice. He was a strong advocate of use of a fixed battery in neuropsychological assessment, published prolifically, and mentored many students who also became prominent in the field. As an author, he has been collected by libraries.

Alfredo Ardila was a Colombian neuropsychologist. He graduated as a psychologist from the National University of Colombia and received a doctoral degree in neuropsychology from the Moscow State University where he worked with Alexander R. Luria. He published in cognitive and behavioral neurosciences, especially in neuropsychology. His research interests included brain organization of cognition, the historical origin of human cognition, aphasia, and bilingualism.

Antonio E. Puente is an American neuropsychologist and academic. He was the 125th president of the American Psychological Association in 2017. He has a private practice, is the founding director of a bilingual mental health clinic, and is on the Department of Psychology faculty at the University of North Carolina Wilmington (UNCW). He founded the journal Neuropsychology Review.

Rehabilitation psychology is a specialty area of psychology aimed at maximizing the independence, functional status, health, and social participation of individuals with disabilities and chronic health conditions. Assessment and treatment may include the following areas: psychosocial, cognitive, behavioral, and functional status, self-esteem, coping skills, and quality of life. As the conditions experienced by patients vary widely, rehabilitation psychologists offer individualized treatment approaches. The discipline takes a holistic approach, considering individuals within their broader social context and assessing environmental and demographic factors that may facilitate or impede functioning. This approach, integrating both personal and environmental factors, is consistent with the World Health Organization's (WHO) International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF).

Developmental neuropsychology combines the fields of neuroscience and developmental psychology, while drawing from various other related disciplines. It examines the relationship of behavior and brain function throughout the course of an individual's lifespan, though often emphasis is put on childhood and adolescence when the majority of brain development occurs. Research tends to focus on development of important behavioral functions like perception, language, and other cognitive processes. Studies in this field are often centered around children or other individuals with developmental disorders or various kinds of brain related trauma or injury. A key concept of this field is that looks at and attempts to relate the psychological aspects of development, such as behavior, comprehension, cognition, etc., to the specific neural structures; it draws parallels between behavior and mechanism in the brain. Research in this field involves various cognitive tasks and tests as well as neuroimaging. Some of the many conditions studied by developmental neuropsychologists include congenital or acquired brain damage, autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit disorder, executive dysfunction, seizures, intellectual disabilities, obsessive compulsive disorder, stuttering, schizophrenia, developmental aphasia, and other learning delays such as dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyspraxia.

References

  1. ↑ National Academy of Neuropsychology. "NAN definition of a Clinical Neuropsychologist". National Academy of Neuropsychology website. Archived from the original on 26 November 2011. Retrieved 7 December 2011.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Goldstein, Laura H.; McNeil, Jane E., eds. (2013). Clinical neuropsychology : a practical guide to assessment and management for clinicians (2nd. ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 3–18. ISBN   9780470683712.
  3. ↑ Marshall, John C.; Gurd, Jennifer (2010). "Chapter 1: Neuropsychology: Past, present, and future". In Gurd, Jennifer; Kischka, Udo; Marshall, John C. (eds.). Handbook of clinical neuropsychology (2nd. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780199234110.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Nelson, Greg J. Lamberty, Nathaniel W. (2012). Specialty competencies in clinical neuropsychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–9. ISBN   978-0195387445.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Holtz, Leslie (2010). Applied clinical neuropsychology : an introduction. New York: Springer. pp. 4–20. ISBN   9780826104748.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Horton, Arthur MacNeill Jr.; Wedding, Danny, eds. (2008). The Neuropsychology Handbook (3rd. ed.). New York: Springer. pp.  3–7. ISBN   9780826102515.
  7. 1 2 E. D. Khomskai︠a︡; David E. Tupper; Darʹi︠a︡ Krotova (2001). Alexander Romanovich Luria: a scientific biography. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. ISBN   0-306-46494-2. OCLC   44750791.
  8. ↑ Luria, Aleksandr Romanovich (1980), "Investigation of the Higher Visual Functions", Higher Cortical Functions in Man, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 451–468, doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-8579-4_16, ISBN   978-1-4615-8581-7 , retrieved 2021-02-27
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Barisa, Mark T. (2010). The business of neuropsychology : a practical guide . Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.  19–22. ISBN   9780195380187.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Gurd, Jennifer; Kischka, Udo; Marshall, John C., eds. (2010). Handbook of clinical neuropsychology (2nd. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–7. ISBN   9780199234110.
  11. 1 2 Lezak, M.D.; Howieson, D.B.; Loring, D.W. (2004). Neuropsychological Assessment (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-511121-7.
  12. 1 2 Clare, L. (2010). "Chpt 25: Neuropsychological Assessment" (PDF). In Abou-Saleh, M.T.; Katona, C.L.E.; Kumar, A. (eds.). Principles and Practice of Geriatric Psychiatry (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 138. ISBN   978-0-470-74723-0.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Hebben, Nancy; Milberg, William (2009). Essentials of neuropsychological assessment (2nd. ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   978-0-470-43747-6.
  14. ↑ Jurado, M.A.; Pueyo, R. (2012). "Doing and reporting neuropsychological assessment". International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology . 12 (1): 123–141.
  15. ↑ Clare, L. (2010). "Chpt 25: Neuropsychological Assessment" (PDF). In Abou-Saleh, M.T.; Katona, C.L.E.; Kumar, A. (eds.). Principles and Practice of Geriatric Psychiatry (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 139. ISBN   978-0-470-74723-0.
  16. ↑ The Australian Psychological Society. "College Course Approval Guidelines for Postgraduate Specialist Courses" (PDF). Australian Psychological Society. p. 15. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
  17. ↑ "CPA Accredited Programmes - Canadian Psychological Association". 15 August 2018.
  18. ↑ Canadian Psychological Association. "Accreditation Standards and Procedures for Doctoral Programmes and Internships in Professional Psychology (5th revision)". Canadian Psychological Association. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
  19. ↑ British Psychological Society. "Qualification in Clinical Neuropsychology". BPS website. British Psychological Society. Archived from the original on 3 February 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  20. ↑ National Academy of Neuropsychology. "The Houston Conference on Specialty Education and Training in Clinical Neuropsychology" (PDF). Policy Statement. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2011.

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