Hyperlexia

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William-Adolphe Bouguereau, The Difficult Lesson (1884) William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) - The Difficult Lesson (1884).jpg
William-Adolphe Bouguereau, The Difficult Lesson (1884)

Hyperlexia is a syndrome characterized by a child's precocious ability to read. It was initially identified by Norman E. Silberberg and Margaret C. Silberberg (1967), who defined it as the precocious ability to read words without prior training in learning to read, typically before the age of five. They indicated that children with hyperlexia have a significantly higher word-decoding ability than their reading comprehension levels. [1] Children with hyperlexia also present with an intense fascination for written material at a very early age. [2]

Contents

Hyperlexic children are characterized by word-reading ability well above what would be expected given their age. [3] First named and scientifically described in 1967, it can be viewed as a superability in which word recognition ability goes far above expected levels of skill. [4] Some hyperlexics, however, have trouble understanding speech. [4] Some experts believe that most children with hyperlexia, or perhaps even all of them, lie on the autism spectrum. [4] [2] However, one expert, Darold Treffert, proposes that hyperlexia has subtypes, only some of which overlap with autism. [5] [6] Between five and twenty percent of autistic children have been estimated to be hyperlexic. [7] [8]

Hyperlexic children are often fascinated by letters or numbers. They are extremely good at decoding language and thus often become very early readers. Some English-speaking hyperlexic children learn to spell long words (such as elephant ) before they are two years old and learn to read whole sentences before they turn three.

Etymology

The word hyperlexia is derived from the Greek terms hyper 'over, beyond, overmuch, above measure' [9] and lexis 'word'. [10]

Development

Although hyperlexic children usually learn to read in a non-communicative way, several studies have shown that they can acquire reading comprehension and communicative language after the onset of hyperlexia. [2] They follow a different developmental trajectory relative to neurotypical individuals, with milestones being acquired in a different order. Despite hyperlexic children's precocious reading ability, they may struggle to communicate. Often, hyperlexic children will have a precocious ability to read but will learn to speak only by rote and heavy repetition, and may also have difficulty learning the rules of language from examples or from trial and error, which may result in social problems. Their language may develop using echolalia, often repeating words and sentences. Often, the child has a large vocabulary and can identify many objects and pictures, but cannot put their language skills to good use. Spontaneous language is lacking and their pragmatic speech is delayed. Hyperlexic children often struggle with Who? What? Where? Why? and How? questions. Between the ages of four and five years old, many children make great strides in communicating.

The social skills of a child with hyperlexia often lag tremendously. Hyperlexic children often have far less interest in playing with other children than do their peers.[ citation needed ]

Types of hyperlexia

In one paper, Darold Treffert proposes three types of hyperlexia. [5] Specifically:

A different paper by Rebecca Williamson Brown, OD proposes only two types of hyperlexia. [11] These are:

Non-English studies

In studies in Cantonese and Korean, subjects were able to read non-words in their native orthography without a delay relative to the speed with which they read real words in their native orthography. There is a delay noted with exception words in English, including the examples chaos, unique, and enough. These studies also illustrate difficulties in understanding what it is that they are reading. The findings suggest that non-hyperlexic readers rely more heavily on word semantics in order to make inferences about word meaning. [12] [13]

The Cantonese study distinguish homographs and determine the readings for rarely used characters. In this study, the subject also made errors of phonetic analogy and regularization of sound. The authors of the study suggest that the two-routes model for reading Chinese characters may be in effect for hyperlexics. The two-routes model describes understanding of Chinese characters in a purely phonetic sense and the understanding of Chinese characters in a semantic sense. [13]

The semantics deficit is also illustrated in the study of Korean hyperlexics through a priming experiment. Non-hyperlexic children read words primed with a related image faster than non-primed words while hyperlexics read them at the same pace. Lee Sunghee and Hwang Mina, the authors of the Korean study, also found that hyperlexics have fewer errors in non-word reading than non-hyperlexics. They suggest that this may be because of an imbalance in the phonological, orthographical, and semantic understandings of the subjects' native language and writing system, in this case, Hangul. This combination of the parts of linguistics is known as connectionism, in which non-words are distinguished from words by differences in interaction between phonology, orthography, and semantics. [12]

In the Lee and Hwang study, the subjects scored lower on general language test and vocabulary tests than the average for their age groups. Literacy education in South Korea involves teaching students entire words, rather than starting with the relationship between phonemes and letters in Hangul, despite evidence that letter name knowledge is useful for learning to read words that have not been taught. The results suggest that hyperlexics are able to obtain the relations between letters (or the smallest unit of the writing system) and their phonemes without knowing the names. [12] [14]

Comprehension difficulties can also be a result of hyperlexia. Semantics and comprehension both have ties to meaning. Semantics relates to the meaning of a certain word while comprehension is the understanding of a longer text. In both studies, interpretation-based and meaning-based tests proved difficult for the hyperlexic subjects. In the Weeks study, the subject was unable to identify characters based on the logographic aspect of the writing system, and in the Lee and Hwang study, priming was ineffective in decreasing reading times for hyperlexics. [12] [13] [14]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dyslexia</span> Specific learning disability characterized by troubles with reading

Dyslexia, previously known as word blindness, is a learning disability that affects either reading or writing. Different people are affected to different degrees. Problems may include difficulties in spelling words, reading quickly, writing words, "sounding out" words in the head, pronouncing words when reading aloud and understanding what one reads. Often these difficulties are first noticed at school. The difficulties are involuntary, and people with this disorder have a normal desire to learn. People with dyslexia have higher rates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), developmental language disorders, and difficulties with numbers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Savant syndrome</span> Psychological phenomenon

Savant syndrome is a phenomenon where someone demonstrates exceptional aptitude in one domain, such as art or mathematics, despite significant social or intellectual impairment.

Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder is a communication disorder in which both the receptive and expressive areas of communication may be affected in any degree, from mild to severe. Children with this disorder have difficulty understanding words and sentences. This impairment is classified by deficiencies in expressive and receptive language development that is not attributed to sensory deficits, nonverbal intellectual deficits, a neurological condition, environmental deprivation or psychiatric impairments. Research illustrates that 2% to 4% of five year olds have mixed receptive-expressive language disorder. This distinction is made when children have issues in expressive language skills, the production of language, and when children also have issues in receptive language skills, the understanding of language. Those with mixed receptive-language disorder have a normal left-right anatomical asymmetry of the planum temporale and parietale. This is attributed to a reduced left hemisphere functional specialization for language. Taken from a measure of cerebral blood flow (SPECT) in phonemic discrimination tasks, children with mixed receptive-expressive language disorder do not exhibit the expected predominant left hemisphere activation. Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder is also known as receptive-expressive language impairment (RELI) or receptive language disorder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Echolalia</span> Speech disorder

Echolalia is the unsolicited repetition of vocalizations made by another person; when repeated by the same person, it is called palilalia. In its profound form it is automatic and effortless. It is one of the echophenomena, closely related to echopraxia, the automatic repetition of movements made by another person; both are "subsets of imitative behavior" whereby sounds or actions are imitated "without explicit awareness". Echolalia may be an immediate reaction to a stimulus or may be delayed.

Reading for special needs has become an area of interest as the understanding of reading has improved. Teaching children with special needs how to read was not historically pursued under the assumption of the reading readiness model that a reader must learn to read in a hierarchical manner such that one skill must be mastered before learning the next skill. This approach often led to teaching sub-skills of reading in a decontextualized manner, preventing students with special needs from progressing to more advanced literacy lessons and subjecting them to repeated age-inappropriate instruction.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to autism:

A reading disability is a condition in which a person displays difficulty reading. Examples of reading disabilities include developmental dyslexia and alexia.

Social Stories were devised as a tool to help autistic individuals better understand the nuances of interpersonal communication so that they could "interact in an effective and appropriate manner". Although the prescribed format was meant for high functioning people with basic communication skills, the format was adapted substantially to suit individuals with poor communication skills and low level functioning. The evidence shows that there has been minimal improvement in social interaction skills. However, it is difficult to assess whether the concept would have been successful if it had been carried out as designed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reading</span> Taking in the meaning of letters or symbols

Reading is the process of taking in the sense or meaning of symbols, often specifically those of a written language, by means of sight or touch.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Classic autism</span> Former neurodevelopmental disorder now classified under autism spectrum disorder

Classic autism, also known as childhood autism, autistic disorder, (early) infantile autism, infantile psychosis, Kanner's autism, Kanner's syndrome, or (formerly) just autism, is a neurodevelopmental condition first described by Leo Kanner in 1943. It is characterized by atypical and impaired development in social interaction and communication as well as restricted, repetitive behaviors, activities, and interests. These symptoms first appear in early childhood and persist throughout life.

The history of dyslexia research spans from the late 1800s to the present.

Dyslexia is a complex, lifelong disorder involving difficulty in learning to read or interpret words, letters and other symbols. Dyslexia does not affect general intelligence, but is often co-diagnosed with ADHD. There are at least three sub-types of dyslexia that have been recognized by researchers: orthographic, or surface dyslexia, phonological dyslexia and mixed dyslexia where individuals exhibit symptoms of both orthographic and phonological dyslexia. Studies have shown that dyslexia is genetic and can be passed down through families. Although it is a genetic disorder, there is no specific locus in the brain for reading and writing. The human brain does have language centers, but written language is a cultural artifact, and a very complex one requiring brain regions designed to recognize and interpret written symbols as representations of language in rapid synchronization. The complexity of the system and the lack of genetic predisposition for it is one possible explanation for the difficulty in acquiring and understanding written language.

Autism, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by repetitive, restricted, and inflexible patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as well as difficulties in social interaction and social communication. Autism generally affects a person's ability to understand and connect with others, as well as their adaptability to everyday situations, with its severity and support needs varying widely across the underlying spectrum. For example, some are nonverbal, while others have proficient spoken language.

The relationship between autism and memory, specifically memory functions in relation to autism spectrum disorder (ASD), is an ongoing topic of research. ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by social communication and interaction impairments, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior. In this article, the word autism is used to refer to the whole range of conditions on the autism spectrum, which are not uncommon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Verbal intelligence</span> The ability to understand concepts in words

Verbal intelligence is the ability to understand and reason using concepts framed in words. More broadly, it is linked to problem solving, abstract reasoning, and working memory. Verbal intelligence is one of the most g-loaded abilities.

Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) is identified when a child has problems with language development that continue into school age and beyond. The language problems have a significant impact on everyday social interactions or educational progress, and occur in the absence of autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability or a known biomedical condition. The most obvious problems are difficulties in using words and sentences to express meanings, but for many children, understanding of language is also a challenge. This may not be evident unless the child is given a formal assessment.

Nonverbal autism, also called nonspeaking autism, is a subset of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) where the person does not learn how to speak. One study has shown that 64% of autistic children who are nonverbal at age 5 are still nonverbal 10 years later.

Hypercalculia is "a specific developmental condition in which the ability to perform mathematical calculations is significantly superior to general learning ability and to school attainment in maths." A 2002 neuroimaging study of a child with hypercalculia suggested greater brain volume in the right temporal lobe. Serial SPECT scans revealed hyperperfusion over right parietal areas during performance of arithmetic tasks.

Kate Nation is an experimental psychologist and expert on language and literacy development in school age children. She is Professor of Experimental Psychology and Fellow of St. John's College of the University of Oxford, where she directs the ReadOxford project and the Language and Cognitive Development Research Group.

Social (pragmatic) communication disorder (SPCD), also known as pragmatic language impairment (PLI), is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties in the social use of verbal and nonverbal communication. Individuals who are defined by the acronym "SPCD" struggle to effectively indulge in social interactions, interpret social cues, and may struggle to use words appropriately in social contexts.

References

  1. ↑ Richman, Lynn, C.; Wood, K.M. (2002). "Learning disability subtypes: classification of high functioning hyperlexia". Brain and Language. 82 (1): 10–21. doi:10.1016/S0093-934X(02)00007-X. PMID   12174811. S2CID   23218407.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. 1 2 3 Ostrolenk, Alexia (May 2017). "Hyperlexia: Systematic review, neurocognitive modelling, and outcome". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 79: 134–149. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.04.029 . PMID   28478182.
  3. ↑ Newman, Tina M.; Macomber, Donna; Naples, Adam J.; Babitz, Tammy; Volkmar, Fred; Grigorenko, Elena L. (19 September 2006). "Hyperlexia in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders" (PDF). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders . 37 (4): 760–774. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0206-y. PMID   17048093. S2CID   23401685. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
  4. 1 2 3 Grigorenko, Elena L.; Klin, Ami; Volkmar, Fred (November 2003). "Annotation: Hyperlexia: disability or superability?". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry . 44 (8): 1079–1091. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.456.6283 . doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00193. PMID   14626452.
  5. 1 2 Treffert, Darold A. (2011). "Hyperlexia: Reading Precociousness or Savant Skill? Distinguishing autistic-like behaviors from Autistic Disorder". Wisconsin Medical Society . Archived from the original on 23 August 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
  6. ↑ Treffert, Darold A. (December 2011). "Hyperlexia III: Separating 'Autistic-like' Behaviors from Autistic Disorder; Assessing Children who Read Early or Speak Late" (PDF). WMJ . 110 (6): 281–287. PMID   22324205. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2019. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
  7. ↑ Burd, Larry; Kerbeshian, Jacob (June 1985). "Hyperlexia and a variant of hypergraphia". Perceptual and Motor Skills . 60 (3): 940–2. doi:10.2466/pms.1985.60.3.940. PMID   3927257. S2CID   6158584.
  8. ↑ Grigorenko, Elena L.; Klin, Ami; Pauls, David L.; Senft, Riley; Hooper, Catalina; Volkmar, Fred (2002-02-01). "A Descriptive Study of Hyperlexia in a Clinically Referred Sample of Children with Developmental Delays". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 32 (1): 3–12. doi:10.1023/A:1017995805511. ISSN   0162-3257. PMID   11916330. S2CID   20220209.
  9. ↑ Harper, Douglas. "hyper-". Etymonline. Retrieved 2020-05-25.
  10. ↑ Harper, Douglas. "dyslexia". Etymonline. Retrieved 2020-05-25.
  11. ↑ Brown, Rebecca Williamson. "Hyperlexia: Related to Vision and Language Problems". NLDline. Archived from the original on 28 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Lee, Sung Hee; Hwang, Mina (1 August 2014). "Word and nonword processing without meaning support in Korean-speaking children with and without hyperlexia". Reading and Writing . 28 (2): 217–238. doi:10.1007/s11145-014-9522-3. S2CID   143655030.
  13. 1 2 3 Wong, W.; Weekes, B.; Iao, L.; To, K.; Su, I. (October 2013). "Is Reading Aloud Semantically Mediated in Chinese Hyperlexia?". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 94: 153–154. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.075 .
  14. 1 2 Kim, Young-Suk (29 June 2008). "The foundation of literacy skills in Korean: the relationship between letter-name knowledge and phonological awareness and their relative contribution to literacy skills". Reading and Writing. 22 (8): 907–931. doi:10.1007/s11145-008-9131-0. S2CID   146180409.

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