Clinical data | |
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Trade names | Risperdal, Okedi, others [1] |
AHFS/Drugs.com | Monograph |
MedlinePlus | a694015 |
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Routes of administration | By mouth, intramuscular, subcutaneous |
Drug class | Atypical antipsychotic [2] |
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Pharmacokinetic data | |
Bioavailability | 70% (by mouth) [2] |
Metabolism | Liver (CYP2D6 mediated to 9-hydroxyrisperidone) [2] |
Elimination half-life | 20 hours (by mouth), 3–6 days (IM) [2] |
Excretion | Urinary (70%) feces (14%) [2] |
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CompTox Dashboard (EPA) | |
ECHA InfoCard | 100.114.705 |
Chemical and physical data | |
Formula | C23H27FN4O2 |
Molar mass | 410.493 g·mol−1 |
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Risperidone, sold under the brand name Risperdal among others, is an atypical antipsychotic [2] used to treat schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, [2] as well as irritability associated with autism. [9] It is taken either by mouth or by injection (i.e., subcutaneous or intramuscular). [2] The injectable versions are long-acting and last for 2–4 weeks. [10]
Common side effects include weight gain, drowsiness, fatigue, insomnia, dry mouth, constipation, elevated prolactin levels, and restlessness. [2] [11] Serious side effects may include the potentially permanent movement disorder tardive dyskinesia, as well as neuroleptic malignant syndrome, an increased risk of suicide, and high blood sugar levels. [2] [10] In older people with psychosis as a result of dementia, it may increase the risk of death. [2] It is unknown if it is safe for use in pregnancy. [2] Its mechanism of action is not entirely clear, but is believed to be related to its action as a dopamine and serotonin antagonist. [2]
Study of risperidone began in the late 1980s and it was approved for sale in the United States in 1993. [2] [9] [7] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. [12] It is available as a generic medication. [10] In 2022, it was the 183rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2 million prescriptions. [13] [14]
Risperidone is mainly used for the treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and irritability associated with autism. [15]
Risperidone is effective in treating psychogenic polydipsia and the acute exacerbations of schizophrenia. [16] [17]
Studies evaluating the utility of risperidone by mouth for maintenance therapy have reached varying conclusions. A 2012 systematic review concluded that evidence is strong that risperidone is more effective than all first-generation antipsychotics other than haloperidol, but that evidence directly supporting its superiority to placebo is equivocal. [18] A 2011 review concluded that risperidone is more effective in relapse prevention than other first- and second-generation antipsychotics with the exception of olanzapine and clozapine. [19] A 2016 Cochrane review suggests that risperidone reduces the overall symptoms of schizophrenia, but firm conclusions are difficult to make due to very low-quality evidence. Data and information are scarce, poorly reported, and probably biased in favour of risperidone, with about half of the included trials developed by drug companies. The article raises concerns regarding the serious side effects of risperidone, such as parkinsonism. [20] A 2011 Cochrane review compared risperidone with other atypical antipsychotics such as olanzapine for schizophrenia: [21]
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Risperidone seems to produce somewhat more extrapyramidal side effects and clearly more prolactin increase than other atypical antipsychotics. It may also differ from other compounds in the occurrence of other adverse effects such as weight gain, metabolic problems, cardiac effects, sedation, and seizures. Nevertheless, the large proportion of participants leaving studies early and incomplete reporting of outcomes makes drawing firm conclusions difficult. [21] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Long-acting injectable formulations of antipsychotic drugs provide improved compliance with therapy and reduce relapse rates relative to oral formulations. [22] [23] The efficacy of risperidone long-acting injection appears to be similar to that of long-acting injectable forms of first-generation antipsychotics. [24]
Second-generation antipsychotics, including risperidone, are effective in the treatment of manic symptoms in acute manic or mixed exacerbations of bipolar disorder. [25] [26] [27] In children and adolescents, risperidone may be more effective than lithium or valproate, but has more metabolic side effects. [28] As maintenance therapy, long-acting injectable risperidone is effective for the prevention of manic episodes but not depressive episodes. [29] The long-acting injectable form of risperidone may be advantageous over long-acting first-generation antipsychotics, as it is better tolerated (fewer extrapyramidal effects) and because long acting injectable formulations of first-generation antipsychotics may increase the risk of depression. [30]
Compared to placebo, risperidone treatment reduces certain problematic behaviors in autistic children, including aggression toward others, self-injury, challenging behavior, and rapid mood changes. [31] The evidence for its efficacy appears to be greater than that for alternative pharmacological treatments. [32] Weight gain is an important adverse effect. [7] [33] Some authors recommend limiting the use of risperidone and aripiprazole to those with the most challenging behavioral disturbances to minimize the risk of drug-induced adverse effects. [34] Evidence for the efficacy of risperidone in autistic adolescents and young adults is less persuasive. [35]
While antipsychotic medications such as risperidone have a slight benefit in people with dementia, they have been linked to a higher incidence of death and stroke. [36] Because of this increased risk of death, treatment of dementia-related psychosis with risperidone is not FDA-approved and carries a black box warning. [7] However, many other jurisdictions regularly use it to control severe aggression and psychosis in those with dementia when other non-pharmacological interventions have failed and their pharmaceutical regulators have approved its use in this population. [37] [38]
Risperidone has demonstrated clinical benefit as an augmentation agent in the management of (unipolar) non-psychotic treatment-resistant depression alongside antidepressant treatment. [39] Atypical antipsychotics, such as risperidone, are among the most common augments for antidepressant therapy. Such usage occurs off-label in most jurisdictions and the risk of adverse effects (e.g., weight gain, movement disorders) must be carefully weighed against the clinical benefit. [40]
Risperidone has shown promise in treating therapy-resistant obsessive–compulsive disorder, when serotonin reuptake inhibitors alone are not sufficient. [41]
Risperidone has proven to be effective in treatment with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), especially in cases of aggression [42] [43] or with another mental condition. [44]
Risperidone has not demonstrated a benefit in the treatment of eating disorders or personality disorders, except for limited evidence in schizotypal personality disorder. [36]
Available forms of risperidone include tablet, orally dissolving tablet, oral solution, and powder and solvent for injection. [45]
Common side effects include movement problems, sleepiness, dizziness, trouble seeing, constipation, and increased weight. [2] [11] About 9 to 20% of people gained more than 7% of the baseline weight depending on the dose. [2] Serious side effects may include the potentially permanent movement disorder tardive dyskinesia, as well as neuroleptic malignant syndrome, an increased risk of suicide, and high blood sugar levels. [2] [10] In older people with psychosis as a result of dementia, it may increase the risk of death. [2]
While atypical antipsychotics appear to have a lower rate of movement problems as compared to typical antipsychotics, risperidone has a high risk of movement problems among the atypicals. [46] [47] Atypical antipsychotics, however, are associated with a greater amount of weight gain and other metabolic side effects. [48] [47]
The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotic treatment to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse. [49]
Older people with dementia-related psychosis are at a higher risk of death. [7]
Site | Ki (nM) | |
---|---|---|
5-HT1A | 423 | Antagonist |
5-HT1B | 14.9 | Antagonist |
5-HT1D | 84.6 | Antagonist |
5-HT2A | 0.17 | Inverse agonist |
5-HT2B | 29–61.9 | Inverse agonist |
5-HT2C | 12.0 | Inverse agonist |
5-HT5A | 206 | Antagonist |
5-HT6 | 2,060 | Antagonist |
5-HT7 | 6.60 | Irreversible antagonist [56] |
α1A | 5.0 | Antagonist |
α1B | 9.0 | Antagonist |
α2A | 16.5 | Antagonist |
α2B | 108 | Antagonist |
α2C | 1.30 | Antagonist |
D1 | 244 | Antagonist |
D2 | 3.57 | Antagonist |
D2S | 4.73 | Antagonist |
D2L | 4.16 | Antagonist |
D3 | 3.6 | Inverse agonist |
D4 | 4.66 | Antagonist |
D5 | 290 | Antagonist |
H1 | 20.1 | Inverse agonist |
H2 | 120 | Inverse agonist |
mACh | >10,000 | Negligible |
Risperidone has been classified as a "qualitatively atypical" antipsychotic agent with a relatively low incidence of extrapyramidal side effects (when given at low doses) that has more pronounced serotonin antagonism than dopamine antagonism. Risperidone contains the functional groups of benzisoxazole and piperidine as part of its molecular structure. Although not a butyrophenone, it was developed with the structures of benperidol and ketanserin as a basis. It has actions at several 5-HT (serotonin) receptor subtypes. These are 5-HT2C, linked to weight gain, and 5-HT2A, linked to its antipsychotic action and relief of some of the extrapyramidal side effects experienced with typical antipsychotics. [57]
It has been found that D-amino acid oxidase, the enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of D-amino acids (e.g. D-alanine and D-serine — the neurotransmitters) is inhibited by risperidone. [58]
Risperidone acts on the following receptors:
Dopamine receptors: This drug is an antagonist of the D1 (D1, and D5) as well as the D2 (D2, D3 and D4) family receptors, with 70-fold selectivity for the D2 family. It has "tight binding" properties, which means it has a long half-life. Like other antipsychotics, risperidone blocks the mesolimbic pathway, the prefrontal cortex limbic pathway, and the tuberoinfundibular pathway in the central nervous system. Risperidone may induce extrapyramidal side effects, akathisia and tremors, which is associated with diminished dopaminergic activity in the striatum. It can also cause sexual side effects, galactorrhoea, infertility, gynecomastia, and, with chronic use, reduced bone mineral density leading to breaks, all of which are associated with increased prolactin secretion. [57]
Serotonin receptors: The most important pharmacological function is to compensate for dopamine blocking.[ medical citation needed ]
Alpha α1 adrenergic receptors: This action accounts for the orthostatic hypotensive effects and perhaps some of the sedating effects of risperidone. [57]
Alpha α2 adrenergic receptors: Risperidone's action at these receptors may cause greater positive, negative, affective, and cognitive symptom control. [59]
Histamine H1 receptors: effects on these receptors account for its sedation and reduction in vigilance. This may also lead to drowsiness and weight gain. [57]
Voltage-gated sodium channels: Because it accumulates in synaptic vesicles, Risperidone inhibits voltage-gated sodium channels at clinically used concentrations. [60]
Risperidone undergoes hepatic metabolism and renal excretion. Lower doses are recommended for patients with severe liver and kidney disease. [7] The active metabolite of risperidone, paliperidone, is also used as an antipsychotic. [61] [ unreliable medical source? ]
Medication | Brand name | Class | Vehicle | Dosage | Tmax | t1/2 single | t1/2 multiple | logPc | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aripiprazole lauroxil | Aristada | Atypical | Water a | 441–1064 mg/4–8 weeks | 24–35 days | ? | 54–57 days | 7.9–10.0 | |
Aripiprazole monohydrate | Abilify Maintena | Atypical | Water a | 300–400 mg/4 weeks | 7 days | ? | 30–47 days | 4.9–5.2 | |
Bromperidol decanoate | Impromen Decanoas | Typical | Sesame oil | 40–300 mg/4 weeks | 3–9 days | ? | 21–25 days | 7.9 | [62] |
Clopentixol decanoate | Sordinol Depot | Typical | Viscoleo b | 50–600 mg/1–4 weeks | 4–7 days | ? | 19 days | 9.0 | [63] |
Flupentixol decanoate | Depixol | Typical | Viscoleo b | 10–200 mg/2–4 weeks | 4–10 days | 8 days | 17 days | 7.2–9.2 | [63] [64] |
Fluphenazine decanoate | Prolixin Decanoate | Typical | Sesame oil | 12.5–100 mg/2–5 weeks | 1–2 days | 1–10 days | 14–100 days | 7.2–9.0 | [65] [66] [67] |
Fluphenazine enanthate | Prolixin Enanthate | Typical | Sesame oil | 12.5–100 mg/1–4 weeks | 2–3 days | 4 days | ? | 6.4–7.4 | [66] |
Fluspirilene | Imap, Redeptin | Typical | Water a | 2–12 mg/1 week | 1–8 days | 7 days | ? | 5.2–5.8 | [68] |
Haloperidol decanoate | Haldol Decanoate | Typical | Sesame oil | 20–400 mg/2–4 weeks | 3–9 days | 18–21 days | 7.2–7.9 | [69] [70] | |
Olanzapine pamoate | Zyprexa Relprevv | Atypical | Water a | 150–405 mg/2–4 weeks | 7 days | ? | 30 days | – | |
Oxyprothepin decanoate | Meclopin | Typical | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | 8.5–8.7 | |
Paliperidone palmitate | Invega Sustenna | Atypical | Water a | 39–819 mg/4–12 weeks | 13–33 days | 25–139 days | ? | 8.1–10.1 | |
Perphenazine decanoate | Trilafon Dekanoat | Typical | Sesame oil | 50–200 mg/2–4 weeks | ? | ? | 27 days | 8.9 | |
Perphenazine enanthate | Trilafon Enanthate | Typical | Sesame oil | 25–200 mg/2 weeks | 2–3 days | ? | 4–7 days | 6.4–7.2 | [71] |
Pipotiazine palmitate | Piportil Longum | Typical | Viscoleo b | 25–400 mg/4 weeks | 9–10 days | ? | 14–21 days | 8.5–11.6 | [64] |
Pipotiazine undecylenate | Piportil Medium | Typical | Sesame oil | 100–200 mg/2 weeks | ? | ? | ? | 8.4 | |
Risperidone | Risperdal Consta | Atypical | Microspheres | 12.5–75 mg/2 weeks | 21 days | ? | 3–6 days | – | |
Zuclopentixol acetate | Clopixol Acuphase | Typical | Viscoleo b | 50–200 mg/1–3 days | 1–2 days | 1–2 days | 4.7–4.9 | ||
Zuclopentixol decanoate | Clopixol Depot | Typical | Viscoleo b | 50–800 mg/2–4 weeks | 4–9 days | ? | 11–21 days | 7.5–9.0 | |
Note: All by intramuscular injection. Footnotes:a = Microcrystalline or nanocrystalline aqueous suspension. b = Low-viscosity vegetable oil (specifically fractionated coconut oil with medium-chain triglycerides). c = Predicted, from PubChem and DrugBank. Sources:Main: See template. |
Risperidone was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1993 for the treatment of schizophrenia. [72] In 2003, the FDA approved risperidone for the short-term treatment of the mixed and manic states associated with bipolar disorder. In 2006, the FDA approved risperidone for the treatment of irritability in autistic children and adolescents. [73] The FDA's decision was based in part on a study of autistic people with severe and enduring problems of violent meltdowns, aggression, and self-injury; risperidone is not recommended for autistic people with mild aggression and explosive behavior without an enduring pattern. [74] On 22 August 2007, risperidone was approved as the only drug agent available for the treatment of schizophrenia in youths, ages 13–17; it was also approved that same day for the treatment of bipolar disorder in youths, ages 10–17, joining lithium.
On 16 December 2021, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) formally recommended market authorization for Okedi, a long-acting depot injection of risperidone. Okedi was approved for the treatment of schizophrenia in adults for whom the tolerability and effectiveness of risperidone had already been established using an oral formulation. [75] Long-acting depot injectable risperidone was approved for medical use in the European Union in February 2022. [8] [76]
In April 2012, Johnson & Johnson (J&J) and its subsidiary Janssen Pharmaceuticals Inc. were fined $1.2 billion for downplaying multiple risks associated with risperidone. [77] The verdict was later reversed by the Arkansas state supreme court. [78]
In August 2012, J&J agreed to pay $181 million to 36 US states to settle claims that it had promoted risperidone and paliperidone for off-label uses including for dementia, anger management, and anxiety. [79]
In November 2013, J&J was fined $2.2 billion for illegally marketing risperidone for use in people with dementia and paying kickbacks to prescribing physicians and nursing home pharmacies. [80]
In 2015, Steven Brill wrote an investigative journalism piece about J&J in The Huffington Post focused on J&J's marketing of risperidone. [81] [82]
J&J has faced numerous civil lawsuits on behalf of children who were prescribed risperidone who grew breasts (a condition called gynecomastia); as of July 2016 there were about 1,500 cases in Pennsylvania state court in Philadelphia, and there had been a February 2015 verdict against J&J with $2.5 million awarded to a man from Alabama, a $1.75 million verdict against J&J that November, and in 2016 a $70 million verdict against J&J. [83] In October 2019, a jury ordered J&J to pay $8 billion in punitive damages to a Pennsylvania man who had grown breasts during adolescence. [84] This verdict amount chosen by the jury was reduced more than 1,000-fold by a judge in January 2020, with the new punitive damages being $6.8 million. [85] A legal scholar commented that punitive damages which exceed the compensatory damages by a factor of 10 or more in cases of this type are usually found to be legally invalid. [84]
Janssen's patent on risperidone expired in December 2003, opening the market for cheaper generic versions from other companies, and Janssen's exclusive marketing rights expired in June 2004 (the result of a pediatric extension). It is available under many brand names worldwide. [1]
Risperidone is available as a tablet, an oral solution, and an ampule, which is a depot injection. [1]
Brand names include Risperdal, Risperdal Consta, Risperdal M-Tab, Risperdal Quicklets, Risperlet, Okedi, and Perseris. [86]
Antipsychotics, previously known as neuroleptics and major tranquilizers, are a class of psychotropic medication primarily used to manage psychosis, principally in schizophrenia but also in a range of other psychotic disorders. They are also the mainstay, together with mood stabilizers, in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Moreover, they are also used as adjuncts in the treatment of treatment-resistant major depressive disorder.
Haloperidol, sold under the brand name Haldol among others, is a typical antipsychotic medication. Haloperidol is used in the treatment of schizophrenia, tics in Tourette syndrome, mania in bipolar disorder, delirium, agitation, acute psychosis, and hallucinations from alcohol withdrawal. It may be used by mouth or injection into a muscle or a vein. Haloperidol typically works within 30 to 60 minutes. A long-acting formulation may be used as an injection every four weeks for people with schizophrenia or related illnesses, who either forget or refuse to take the medication by mouth.
The atypical antipsychotics (AAP), also known as second generation antipsychotics (SGAs) and serotonin–dopamine antagonists (SDAs), are a group of antipsychotic drugs largely introduced after the 1970s and used to treat psychiatric conditions. Some atypical antipsychotics have received regulatory approval for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, irritability in autism, and as an adjunct in major depressive disorder.
Quetiapine, sold under the brand name Seroquel among others, is an atypical antipsychotic medication used for the treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder. Despite being widely used as a sleep aid due to its tranquillizing effects, the benefits of such use may not outweigh the risk of undesirable side effects. It is taken orally.
Ziprasidone, sold under the brand name Geodon among others, is an atypical antipsychotic used to treat schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. It may be used by mouth and by injection into a muscle (IM). The IM form may be used for acute agitation in people with schizophrenia.
Olanzapine, sold under the brand name Zyprexa among others, is an atypical antipsychotic primarily used to treat schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. It is also sometimes used off-label for treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting and as an appetite stimulant. For schizophrenia, it can be used for both new-onset disease and long-term maintenance. It is taken by mouth or by injection into a muscle.
Perphenazine is a typical antipsychotic drug. Chemically, it is classified as a piperazinyl phenothiazine. Originally marketed in the United States as Trilafon, it has been in clinical use for decades.
Aripiprazole, sold under the brand names Abilify and Aristada, among others, is an atypical antipsychotic. It is primarily used in the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder; other uses include as an add-on treatment in major depressive disorder and obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), tic disorders, and irritability associated with autism. Aripiprazole is taken by mouth or via injection into a muscle. A Cochrane review found low-quality evidence of effectiveness in treating schizophrenia.
A dopamine antagonist, also known as an anti-dopaminergic and a dopamine receptor antagonist (DRA), is a type of drug which blocks dopamine receptors by receptor antagonism. Most antipsychotics are dopamine antagonists, and as such they have found use in treating schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and stimulant psychosis. Several other dopamine antagonists are antiemetics used in the treatment of nausea and vomiting.
Amisulpride, sold under the brand names Solian and Barhemsys, is a medication used in the treatment of schizophrenia, acute psychotic episodes, depression, and nausea and vomiting. It is specifically used at lower doses intravenously to prevent and treat postoperative nausea and vomiting; at low doses by mouth to treat depression; and at higher doses by mouth to treat psychosis.
Paliperidone, sold under the brand name Invega among others, is an atypical antipsychotic. It is mainly used to treat schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. It is marketed by Janssen Pharmaceuticals.
Extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) are symptoms that are archetypically associated with the extrapyramidal system of the brain's cerebral cortex. When such symptoms are caused by medications or other drugs, they are also known as extrapyramidal side effects (EPSE). The symptoms can be acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term). They include movement dysfunction such as dystonia, akathisia, parkinsonism characteristic symptoms such as rigidity, bradykinesia, tremor, and tardive dyskinesia. Extrapyramidal symptoms are a reason why subjects drop out of clinical trials of antipsychotics; of the 213 (14.6%) subjects that dropped out of one of the largest clinical trials of antipsychotics, 58 (27.2%) of those discontinuations were due to EPS.
Asenapine, sold under the brand name Saphris among others, is an atypical antipsychotic medication used to treat schizophrenia and acute mania associated with bipolar disorder as well as the medium to long-term management of bipolar disorder.
Iloperidone, commonly known as Fanapt and previously known as Zomaril, is an atypical antipsychotic for the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar I disorder.
Perospirone (Lullan) is an atypical antipsychotic of the azapirone family. It was introduced in Japan by Dainippon Sumitomo Pharma in 2001 for the treatment of schizophrenia and acute cases of bipolar mania.
Lurasidone, sold under the brand name Latuda among others, is an antipsychotic medication used to treat schizophrenia and bipolar depression. It is taken by mouth.
Pimavanserin, sold under the brand name Nuplazid, is an atypical antipsychotic which is approved for the treatment of Parkinson's disease psychosis. It is taken by mouth.
Cariprazine, sold under the brand name Vraylar among others, is an atypical antipsychotic developed by Gedeon Richter, which is used in the treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar mania, bipolar depression, and major depressive disorder. It acts primarily as a D3 and D2 receptor partial agonist, with a preference for the D3 receptor. Cariprazine is also a partial agonist at the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor and acts as an antagonist at 5-HT2B and 5-HT2A receptors, with high selectivity for the D3 receptor. It is taken by mouth. The most prevalent side effects include nausea, mild sedation, fatigue, and dizziness. At higher dosages, there is an increased risk for restlessness, insomnia, and tremors.
Brexpiprazole, sold under the brand name Rexulti among others, is an atypical antipsychotic medication used for the treatment of major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and agitation associated with dementia due to Alzheimer's disease.
Aripiprazole lauroxil, sold under the brand name Aristada, is a long-acting injectable atypical antipsychotic that was developed by Alkermes. It is an N-acyloxymethyl prodrug of aripiprazole that is administered via intramuscular injection once every four to eight weeks for the treatment of schizophrenia. Aripiprazole lauroxil was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on 5 October 2015.
Compared with FGAs, SGAs may decrease the risk for experiencing any extrapyramidal symptom (EPS). FGAs probably cause lower gains in weight and BMI.
Withdrawal of antipsychotic drugs after long-term therapy should always be gradual and closely monitored to avoid the risk of acute withdrawal syndromes or rapid relapse.
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