Octopamine

Last updated

Octopamine
Octopamin.svg
(S)-Octopamine molecule ball.png
Clinical data
Other namesOCT, Norsympathol, Norsynephrine, para-Octopamine, beta-Hydroxytyramine, para-hydroxy-phenyl-ethanolamine, α-(Aminomethyl)-4 hydroxybenzenemethanol, 1-(p-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-aminoethanol
Routes of
administration 		Oral
ATC code
Physiological data
Source tissues invertebrate nervous systems; trace amine in vertebrates
Target tissuessystem-wide in invertebrates
Receptors TAAR1 (mammals)
OctαR, OctβR, TyrR (invertebrates), Oct-TyrR
Agonists Formamidines (amitraz (AMZ) and chlordimeform (CDM))
Antagonists epinastine (3-amino-9, 13b-dihydro-1H-dibenz(c,f)imidazo(1,5a)azepine hydrochloride)
Precursor tyramine
Biosynthesis tyramine β-hydroxylase; dopamine β-hydroxylase
Metabolism p-hydroxymandelic acid; [1] [2] N-acetyltransferases; phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability 99.42 %
Metabolism p-hydroxymandelic acid; [1] [4] N-acetyltransferases; phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
Elimination half-life 15 minutes in insects. Between 76 and 175 minutes in humans
Excretion Up to 93% of ingested octopamine is eliminated via the urinary route within 24 hours [1]
Identifiers
  • (RS)-4-(2-amino-1-hydroxy-ethyl)phenol
CAS Number
PubChem CID
IUPHAR/BPS
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard 100.002.890 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Chemical and physical data
Formula C8H11NO2
Molar mass 153.181 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
  • OC(c1ccc(O)cc1)CN
  • InChI=1S/C8H11NO2/c9-5-8(11)6-1-3-7(10)4-2-6/h1-4,8,10-11H,5,9H2 Yes check.svgY
  • Key:QHGUCRYDKWKLMG-UHFFFAOYSA-N Yes check.svgY
 X mark.svgNYes check.svgY  (what is this?)    (verify)

Octopamine (molecular formula C8H11NO2; also known as OA, and also norsynephrine, para-octopamine and others) is an organic chemical closely related to norepinephrine, and synthesized biologically by a homologous pathway. Octopamine is often considered the major "fight-or-flight" neurohormone of invertebrates. Its name is derived from the fact that it was first identified in the salivary glands of the octopus.

Contents

In many types of invertebrates octopamine is an important neurotransmitter and hormone. In protostomes—arthropods, molluscs, and several types of worms—it substitutes for norepinephrine and performs functions apparently similar to those of norepinephrine in mammals, functions that have been described as mobilizing the body and nervous system for action. In mammals octopamine is found only in trace amounts, and no biological function has been solidly established for it. It is also found naturally in numerous plants, including bitter orange. [5] [6] Octopamine has been sold under trade names such as Epirenor, Norden, and Norfen for use as a sympathomimetic drug, available by prescription.

Functions

Cellular effects

Octopamine exerts its effects by binding to and activating receptors located on the surface of cells. These receptors have mainly been studied in insects, where they can be divided into distinct types:

  1. OctαR (alpha-adrenergic-like), are structurally and functionally similar to noradrenergic alpha-1 receptors in mammals. There are multiple subtypes of the OctαR receptor. For example, the kissing bug ( Rhodnius prolixus ) has Octα1-R, Octα2R. [7]
  2. OctβR (beta-adrenergic-like), are structurally and functionally similar to noradrenergic beta receptors in mammals. There are multiple subtypes of the OctβR receptor. For example, the fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster ) has DmOctβ1R, DmOctβ2R, and DmOctβ3R. [8]
  3. OAMB. The diversity of this receptor is relatively unknown. The fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) has two distinct isoforms which are functionally distinct: OambK3 and OambAS. [9]
  4. TyrR (mixed octopamine/tyramine receptors), which are structurally and functionally similar to noradrenergic alpha-2 receptors in mammals. [10] Receptors in the TyrR class, however, are generally more strongly activated by tyramine than by octopamine. [10]

Phylogenetic studies claim that in ancient bilaterians such as Platynereis dumerilii there is a co-existence of norepinephrine, tyramine and octopamine receptor signaling. However, due to partial overlapping in their signalling functionality tyramine and octopamine receptors have been lost in vertebrates. [11]

In vertebrates no octopamine-specific receptors have been identified. Octopamine binds weakly to receptors for norepinephrine and epinephrine, but it is not clear whether this has any functional significance. It binds more strongly to trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs), especially TAAR1. [10]

Invertebrates

Octopamine was first discovered by Italian scientist Vittorio Erspamer in 1948 [12] in the salivary glands of the octopus and has since been found to act as a neurotransmitter, neurohormone and neuromodulator in invertebrates. Although Erspamer discovered its natural occurrence and named it, octopamine had actually existed for many years as a pharmaceutical product. [13] It is widely used in energy-demanding behaviors by all insects, crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, crayfish), and spiders. Such behaviors include modulating muscle tension, [14] flying, [15] ovulation and egg-laying, [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] and jumping. [22] [23]

In non-insect invertebrates

In lobsters, octopamine seems to direct and coordinate neurohormones to some extent in the central nervous system, and it was observed that injecting octopamine into a lobster and crayfish resulted in limb and abdomen extension. [24]

In the nematode, octopamine is found in high concentrations in adults, decreasing egg-laying and pharyngeal pumping behaviors with an antagonistic effect to serotonin. [25]

Octopaminergic nerves in the mollusc may be present in the heart, with high concentrations in the nervous system. [26]

In non-Drosophila insects

In insects, octopamine is released by a select number of neurons, but acts broadly throughout the central brain, on all sense organs, and on several non-neuronal tissues. [27] [28] In the thoracic ganglia, octopamine is primarily released by DUM (dorsal unpaired median) and VUM (ventral unpaired median) neurons, which release octopamine onto neural, muscular, and peripheral targets. [29] [30] These neurons are important for mediating energy-demanding motor behaviors, such as escape-induced jumping and flight. For example, the locust DUMeti neuron releases octopamine onto the extensor tibia muscle to increase muscle tension and increase relaxation rate. These actions promote efficient leg muscle contraction for jumping. [27] During flight, DUM neurons are also active and release octopamine throughout the body to synchronize energy metabolism, respiration, muscle activity and flight interneuron activity. [15] Octopamine in locusts is four times more concentrated in the axon than in the soma, and decreases the locust's myogenic rhythm. [31]

In the honey bee, octopamine has a major role in learning and memory. In the firefly, octopamine release leads to light production in the lantern. [32] [33]

In larvae of the oriental armyworm, octopamine is immunologically beneficial, increasing survival rates in high-density populations. [34]

The emerald cockroach wasp stings the host for its larvae (a cockroach) in the head ganglion (brain). The venom blocks octopamine receptors [35] and the cockroach fails to show normal escape responses, grooming itself excessively. It becomes docile and the wasp leads it to the wasp's den by pulling its antenna like a leash. [36]

In Drosophila

Octopamine affects almost every process of the fruit fly and is widely present in both the adult and larval fly. A non-exhaustive list of some of the areas in which Octopamine modulates:

Vertebrates

In vertebrates, octopamine replaces norepinephrine in sympathetic neurons with chronic use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors. It may be responsible for the common side effect of orthostatic hypotension with these agents, though there is also evidence that it is actually mediated by increased levels of N-acetylserotonin.

One study noted that octopamine might be an important amine that influences the therapeutic effects of inhibitors such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors, especially because a large increase in octopamine levels was observed when animals were treated with this inhibitor. Octopamine was positively identified in the urine samples of mammals such as humans, rats, and rabbits treated with monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Very small amounts of octopamine were also found in certain animal tissues. It was observed that within a rabbit's body, the heart and kidney held the highest concentrations of octopamine. Octopamine was found to be 93% eluted by urine within 24 hours of being produced in the body as a byproduct of Iproniazid in rabbits. [13]

Pharmacology

Octopamine has been sold under trade names such as Epirenor, Norden, and Norfen for use in medicine as a sympathomimetic drug, available by prescription. However, very little information exists concerning its clinical usefulness or safety. [61]

In mammals, octopamine may mobilize the release of fat from adipocytes (fat cells), which has led to its promotion on the internet as a slimming aid. However, the released fat is likely to be promptly taken up into other cells, and there is no evidence that octopamine facilitates weight loss. Octopamine may also increase blood pressure significantly when combined with other stimulants, as in some weight loss supplements. [62]

The World Anti-Doping Agency lists octopamine as a banned substance for in competition use, as a "specified stimulant" [63] on the 2019 Prohibited List.

Insecticides

The octopamine receptor is a target of insecticides, as its blockage leads to decreased cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels. Essential oils can have such a neuro-insecticidal effect, [64] and this octopamine-receptor mechanism is naturally utilized by plants with active insecticidal phytochemicals. [65]

Biochemical mechanisms

Mammals

Octopamine is one of four primary endogenous agonists of human trace amine-associated receptor 1 together with 3-iodothyronamine, dopamine and tyramine. [66] [67]

Invertebrates

Octopamine binds to its respective G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) to initiate a cell signal transduction pathway. At least three groups of octopamine GPCR have been defined. OctαR (OCTOPAMINE1 receptors) are more closely related to α-adrenergic receptors, while OctβR (OCTOPAMINE2 receptors) are more closely related to β-adrenergic receptors. The Octopamine/Tyramine receptors (including Oct-TyrR) can bind both ligands, and display agonist-specific coupling. Oct-TyrR is listed in both OCTOPAMINE and TYRAMINE RECEPTORS gene groups. [68]

Biosynthesis

Invertebrate synthesis of Octopamine OA Synthesis.svg
Invertebrate synthesis of Octopamine

In insects

Octopamine acts as the insect equivalent of norepinephrine and has been implicated in regulating aggression in invertebrates, with different effects on different species. Studies have shown that reducing the neurotransmitter octopamine and preventing coding of tyramine beta hydroxylase (an enzyme that converts tyramine to octopamine) decreases aggression in Drosophila without influencing other behaviors. [69]

In humans

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Serotonin</span> Monoamine neurotransmitter

Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Its biological function is complex, touching on diverse functions including mood, cognition, reward, learning, memory, and numerous physiological processes such as vomiting and vasoconstriction.

<i>Drosophila melanogaster</i> Species of fruit fly

Drosophila melanogaster is a species of fly in the family Drosophilidae. The species is often referred to as the fruit fly or lesser fruit fly, or less commonly the "vinegar fly", "pomace fly", or "banana fly". In the wild, D. melanogaster are attracted to rotting fruit and fermenting beverages, and are often found in orchards, kitchens and pubs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monoamine neurotransmitter</span> Monoamine that acts as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator

Monoamine neurotransmitters are neurotransmitters and neuromodulators that contain one amino group connected to an aromatic ring by a two-carbon chain (such as -CH2-CH2-). Examples are dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mushroom bodies</span> Pair of structures in the brains of some arthropods and annelids

The mushroom bodies or corpora pedunculata are a pair of structures in the brain of arthropods, including insects and crustaceans, and some annelids. They are known to play a role in olfactory learning and memory. In most insects, the mushroom bodies and the lateral horn are the two higher brain regions that receive olfactory information from the antennal lobe via projection neurons. They were first identified and described by French biologist Félix Dujardin in 1850.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tyramine</span> Chemical compound

Tyramine, also known under several other names, is a naturally occurring trace amine derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine acts as a catecholamine releasing agent. Notably, it is unable to cross the blood-brain barrier, resulting in only non-psychoactive peripheral sympathomimetic effects following ingestion. A hypertensive crisis can result, however, from ingestion of tyramine-rich foods in conjunction with the use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuropeptide</span> Peptides released by neurons as intercellular messengers

Neuropeptides are chemical messengers made up of small chains of amino acids that are synthesized and released by neurons. Neuropeptides typically bind to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to modulate neural activity and other tissues like the gut, muscles, and heart.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Synephrine</span> Chemical compound

Synephrine, or, more specifically, p-synephrine, is an alkaloid, occurring naturally in some plants and animals, and also in approved drugs products as its m-substituted analog known as neo-synephrine. p-Synephrine and m-synephrine are known for their longer acting adrenergic effects compared to epinephrine and norepinephrine. This substance is present at very low concentrations in common foodstuffs such as orange juice and other orange products, both of the "sweet" and "bitter" variety. The preparations used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), also known as Zhi Shi (枳实), are the immature and dried whole oranges from Citrus aurantium. Extracts of the same material or purified synephrine are also marketed in the US, sometimes in combination with caffeine, as a weight-loss-promoting dietary supplement for oral consumption. While the traditional preparations have been in use for millennia as a component of TCM-formulas, synephrine itself is not an approved over the counter drug. As a pharmaceutical, m-synephrine (phenylephrine) is still used as a sympathomimetic, mostly by injection for the treatment of emergencies such as shock, and rarely orally for the treatment of bronchial problems associated with asthma and hay-fever.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Campaniform sensilla</span> Class of mechanoreceptors found in insects

Campaniform sensilla are a class of mechanoreceptors found in insects, which respond to local stress and strain within the animal's cuticle. Campaniform sensilla function as proprioceptors that detect mechanical load as resistance to muscle contraction, similar to mammalian Golgi tendon organs. Sensory feedback from campaniform sensilla is integrated in the control of posture and locomotion.

alpha-1 (α1) adrenergic receptors are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) associated with the Gq heterotrimeric G protein. α1-adrenergic receptors are subdivided into three highly homologous subtypes, i.e., α1A-, α1B-, and α1D-adrenergic receptor subtypes. There is no α1C receptor. At one time, there was a subtype known as α1C, but it was found to be identical to the previously discovered α1A receptor subtype. To avoid confusion, naming was continued with the letter D. Catecholamines like norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline) signal through the α1-adrenergic receptors in the central and peripheral nervous systems. The crystal structure of the α1B-adrenergic receptor subtype has been determined in complex with the inverse agonist (+)-cyclazosin.

Chordotonal organs are stretch receptor organs found only in insects and crustaceans. They are located at most joints and are made up of clusters of scolopidia that either directly or indirectly connect two joints and sense their movements relative to one another. They can have both extero- and proprioceptive functions, for example sensing auditory stimuli or leg movement. The word was coined by Vitus Graber in 1882, though he interpreted them as being stretched between two points like a string, sensing vibrations through resonance.

Odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) are small soluble proteins secreted by auxiliary cells surrounding olfactory receptor neurons, including the nasal mucus of many vertebrate species and in the sensillar lymph of chemosensory sensilla of insects. OBPs are characterized by a specific protein domain that comprises six α-helices joined by three disulfide bonds. Although the function of the OBPs as a whole is not well established, it is believed that they act as odorant transporters, delivering the odorant molecules to olfactory receptors in the cell membrane of sensory neurons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Norepinephrine</span> Catecholamine hormone and neurotransmitter

Norepinephrine (NE), also called noradrenaline (NA) or noradrenalin, is an organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the brain and body as a hormone, neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. The name "noradrenaline" is more commonly used in the United Kingdom, whereas "norepinephrine" is usually preferred in the United States. "Norepinephrine" is also the international nonproprietary name given to the drug. Regardless of which name is used for the substance itself, parts of the body that produce or are affected by it are referred to as noradrenergic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">TAAR1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) is a trace amine-associated receptor (TAAR) protein that in humans is encoded by the TAAR1 gene. TAAR1 is an intracellular amine-activated Gs-coupled and Gq-coupled G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that is primarily expressed in several peripheral organs and cells, astrocytes, and in the intracellular milieu within the presynaptic plasma membrane of monoamine neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). TAAR1 was discovered in 2001 by two independent groups of investigators, Borowski et al. and Bunzow et al. TAAR1 is one of six functional human trace amine-associated receptors, which are so named for their ability to bind endogenous amines that occur in tissues at trace concentrations. TAAR1 plays a significant role in regulating neurotransmission in dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin neurons in the CNS; it also affects immune system and neuroimmune system function through different mechanisms.

Crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP) is a highly conserved, amidated cyclic nonapeptide with the primary structure PFCNAFTGC-NH2 (ProPheCysAsnAlaPheTyrGlyCys-NH2) and a disulfide bridge between Cys3 and Cys9. It is found in crustaceans and insects where it behaves as a cardioaccelerator, neuropeptide transmitter for other areas of the nervous system and a hormone. CCAP was first isolated from the pericardial organs of the shore crab Carcinus maenas, where it has a role in regulating heartbeat. It was assumed that this was the peptide's main function and its name reflects this.

Pigment dispersing factor (pdf) is a gene that encodes the protein PDF, which is part of a large family of neuropeptides. Its hormonal product, pigment dispersing hormone (PDH), was named for the diurnal pigment movement effect it has in crustacean retinal cells upon its initial discovery in the central nervous system of arthropods. The movement and aggregation of pigments in retina cells and extra-retinal cells is hypothesized to be under a split hormonal control mechanism. One hormonal set is responsible for concentrating chromatophoral pigment by responding to changes in the organism's exposure time to darkness. Another hormonal set is responsible for dispersion and responds to the light cycle. However, insect pdf genes do not function in such pigment migration since they lack the chromatophore.

Paul H. Taghert is an American chronobiologist known for pioneering research on the roles and regulation of neuropeptide signaling in the brain using Drosophila melanogaster as a model. He is a professor of neuroscience in the Department of Neuroscience at Washington University in St. Louis.

Hair-plates are a type of proprioceptor found in the folds of insect joints. They consist of a cluster of hairs, in which each hair is innervated by a single mechanosensory neuron. Functionally, hair-plates operate as "limit-detectors" by signaling the extreme ranges of motion of a joint.

Nilay Yapici is a Turkish neuroscientist at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, where she is the Nancy and Peter Meinig Family Investigator in the Life Sciences and Adelson Sesquicentennial Fellow in the Department of Neurobiology and Behavior. Yapici studies the neural circuits underlying decision making and feeding behavior in fruit fly models.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reinhard F. Stocker</span> Swiss biologist

Reinhard F. Stocker is a Swiss biologist. He pioneered the analysis of the sense of smell and taste in higher animals, using the fly Drosophila melanogaster as a study case. He provided a detailed account of the anatomy and development of the olfactory system, in particular across metamorphosis, for which he received the Théodore-Ott-Prize of the Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences in 2007, and pioneered the use of larval Drosophila for the brain and behavioural sciences.

A descending neuron is a neuron that conveys signals from the brain to neural circuits in the spinal cord (vertebrates) or ventral nerve cord (invertebrates). As the sole conduits of information between the brain and the body, descending neurons play a key role in behavior. Their activity can initiate, maintain, modulate, and terminate behaviors such as locomotion. Because the number of descending neurons is several orders of magnitude smaller than the number of neurons in either the brain or spinal cord/ventral nerve cord, this class of cells represents a critical bottleneck in the flow of information from sensory systems to motor circuits.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Hengstmann JH, Konen W, Konen C, Eichelbaum M, Dengler HJ (1974). "The physiological disposition of p-octopamine in man". Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology. 283 (1): 93–106. doi:10.1007/bf00500148. PMID   4277715. S2CID   35523412.
  2. ↑ D'Andrea G, Nordera G, Pizzolato G, Bolner A, Colavito D, Flaibani R, et al. (January 2010). "Trace amine metabolism in Parkinson's disease: low circulating levels of octopamine in early disease stages". Neuroscience Letters. 469 (3): 348–351. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2009.12.025. PMID   20026245. S2CID   12797090.
  3. ↑ "FDA's New Dietary Supplement Ingredient Directory | Foley & Lardner LLP". www.foley.com. 5 June 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  4. ↑ D'Andrea G, Nordera G, Pizzolato G, Bolner A, Colavito D, Flaibani R, et al. (January 2010). "Trace amine metabolism in Parkinson's disease: low circulating levels of octopamine in early disease stages". Neuroscience Letters. 469 (3): 348–351. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2009.12.025. PMID   20026245. S2CID   12797090.
  5. ↑ Tang F, Tao L, Luo X, Ding L, Guo M, Nie L, et al. (September 2006). "Determination of octopamine, synephrine and tyramine in Citrus herbs by ionic liquid improved 'green' chromatography". Journal of Chromatography A. 1125 (2): 182–188. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2006.05.049. PMID   16781718.
  6. ↑ Jagiełło-Wójtowicz E (1979). "Mechanism of central action of octopamine". Polish Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmacy. 31 (5): 509–516. PMID   121158.
  7. ↑ Hana S, Lange AB (26 September 2017). "Cloning and Functional Characterization of Octβ2-Receptor and Tyr1-Receptor in the Chagas Disease Vector, Rhodnius prolixus". Frontiers in Physiology. 8: 744. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00744 . PMC   5623054 . PMID   29018364.
  8. ↑ Maqueira B, Chatwin H, Evans PD (July 2005). "Identification and characterization of a novel family of Drosophila beta-adrenergic-like octopamine G-protein coupled receptors". Journal of Neurochemistry. 94 (2): 547–560. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03251.x. PMID   15998303. S2CID   83666118.
  9. ↑ Lee HG, Rohila S, Han KA (5 March 2009). "The octopamine receptor OAMB mediates ovulation via Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II in the Drosophila oviduct epithelium". PLOS ONE. 4 (3): e4716. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.4716L. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004716 . PMC   2650798 . PMID   19262750.
  10. 1 2 3 Pflüger HJ, Stevensonb PA (2005). "Evolutionary aspects of octopaminergic systems with emphasis on arthropods". Arthropod Structure & Development. 34 (3): 379–396. doi:10.1016/j.asd.2005.04.004.
  11. ↑ Bauknecht P, Jékely G (January 2017). "Ancient coexistence of norepinephrine, tyramine, and octopamine signaling in bilaterians". BMC Biology. 15 (1): 6. doi: 10.1186/s12915-016-0341-7 . PMC   5282848 . PMID   28137258.
  12. ↑ Erspamer V (2009). "Active Substances in the Posterior Salivary Glands of Octopoda. II. Tyramine and Octopamine (Oxyoctopamine)". Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica. 4 (3–4): 224–47. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0773.1948.tb03345.x.
  13. 1 2 Kakimoto Y, Armstrong MD (February 1962). "On the identification of octopamine in mammals". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 237 (2): 422–427. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)93937-2 . PMID   14453200.
  14. 1 2 Ormerod KG, Hadden JK, Deady LD, Mercier AJ, Krans JL (October 2013). "Action of octopamine and tyramine on muscles of Drosophila melanogaster larvae". Journal of Neurophysiology. 110 (8): 1984–1996. doi:10.1152/jn.00431.2013. hdl: 10464/6361 . PMID   23904495.
  15. 1 2 Orchard I, Ramirez JM, Lange AB (January 1993). "A Multifunctional Role for Octopamine in Locust Flight". Annual Review of Entomology. 38 (1): 227–249. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.38.010193.001303. ISSN   0066-4170.
  16. 1 2 Lee HG, Seong CS, Kim YC, Davis RL, Han KA (December 2003). "Octopamine receptor OAMB is required for ovulation in Drosophila melanogaster". Developmental Biology. 264 (1): 179–190. doi: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2003.07.018 . PMID   14623240.
  17. 1 2 Li Y, Fink C, El-Kholy S, Roeder T (March 2015). "The octopamine receptor octß2R is essential for ovulation and fertilization in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster". Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology. 88 (3): 168–178. doi:10.1002/arch.21211. PMID   25353988.
  18. 1 2 Lim J, Sabandal PR, Fernandez A, Sabandal JM, Lee HG, Evans P, et al. (6 August 2014). Broughton S (ed.). "The octopamine receptor Octβ2R regulates ovulation in Drosophila melanogaster". PLOS ONE. 9 (8): e104441. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j4441L. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0104441 . PMC   4123956 . PMID   25099506.
  19. 1 2 Lee HG, Rohila S, Han KA (5 March 2009). Louis M (ed.). "The octopamine receptor OAMB mediates ovulation via Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II in the Drosophila oviduct epithelium". PLOS ONE. 4 (3): e4716. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.4716L. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004716 . PMC   2650798 . PMID   19262750.
  20. 1 2 Monastirioti M (December 2003). "Distinct octopamine cell population residing in the CNS abdominal ganglion controls ovulation in Drosophila melanogaster". Developmental Biology. 264 (1): 38–49. doi: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2003.07.019 . PMID   14623230.
  21. 1 2 Deady LD, Sun J (October 2015). Wolfner MF (ed.). "A Follicle Rupture Assay Reveals an Essential Role for Follicular Adrenergic Signaling in Drosophila Ovulation". PLOS Genetics. 11 (10): e1005604. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005604 . PMC   4608792 . PMID   26473732.
  22. ↑ Pollack AJ, Ritzmann RE, Westin J (September 1988). "Activation of DUM cell interneurons by ventral giant interneurons in the cockroach, Periplaneta americana". Journal of Neurobiology. 19 (6): 489–497. doi:10.1002/neu.480190602. PMID   3171574.
  23. ↑ Orchard I (1 April 1982). "Octopamine in insects: neurotransmitter, neurohormone, and neuromodulator". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 60 (4): 659–669. doi:10.1139/z82-095. ISSN   0008-4301.
  24. ↑ Livingstone MS, Harris-Warrick RM, Kravitz EA (April 1980). "Serotonin and octopamine produce opposite postures in lobsters". Science. 208 (4439): 76–79. Bibcode:1980Sci...208...76L. doi:10.1126/science.208.4439.76. PMID   17731572. S2CID   32141532.
  25. ↑ Horvitz HR, Chalfie M, Trent C, Sulston JE, Evans PD (May 1982). "Serotonin and octopamine in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans". Science. 216 (4549): 1012–1014. Bibcode:1982Sci...216.1012H. doi:10.1126/science.6805073. PMID   6805073.
  26. ↑ Dougan DF, Duffield PH, Wade DN, Duffield AM (January 1981). "Occurrence and synthesis of octopamine in the heart and ganglia of the mollusc Tapes watlingi". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Comparative Pharmacology. 70 (2): 277–280. doi:10.1016/0306-4492(81)90064-2. ISSN   0306-4492.
  27. 1 2 Atwood HL, Klose MK (1 January 2009), "Neuromuscular Transmission Modulation at Invertebrate Neuromuscular Junctions", in Squire LR (ed.), Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 671–690, doi:10.1016/B978-008045046-9.01262-6, ISBN   978-0-08-045046-9 , retrieved 10 July 2020
  28. ↑ Roeder T (December 1999). "Octopamine in invertebrates". Progress in Neurobiology. 59 (5): 533–561. doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(99)00016-7. PMID   10515667. S2CID   25654298.
  29. ↑ Eckert M, Rapus J, Nürnberger A, Penzlin H (August 1992). "A new specific antibody reveals octopamine-like immunoreactivity in cockroach ventral nerve cord". The Journal of Comparative Neurology (in French). 322 (1): 1–15. doi:10.1002/cne.903220102. PMID   1430305. S2CID   41099770.
  30. ↑ Sinakevitch IG, Geffard M, Pelhate M, Lapied B (April 1994). "Octopamine-like immunoreactivity in the dorsal unpaired median (DUM) neurons innervating the accessory gland of the male cockroach Periplaneta americana". Cell and Tissue Research. 276 (1): 15–21. doi:10.1007/bf00354779. ISSN   0302-766X. S2CID   23485136.
  31. ↑ Evans PD, O'Shea M (April 1978). "The identification of an octopaminergic neurone and the modulation of a myogenic rhythm in the locust". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 73: 235–260. doi:10.1242/jeb.73.1.235. PMID   25941.
  32. ↑ Greenfield MD (November 2001). "Missing link in firefly bioluminescence revealed: NO regulation of photocyte respiration". BioEssays. 23 (11): 992–995. doi:10.1002/bies.1144. PMID   11746215.
  33. ↑ Trimmer BA, Aprille JR, Dudzinski DM, Lagace CJ, Lewis SM, Michel T, et al. (June 2001). "Nitric oxide and the control of firefly flashing". Science. 292 (5526): 2486–2488. doi:10.1126/science.1059833. PMID   11431567. S2CID   1095642.
  34. ↑ Kong H, Yuan L, Dong C, Zheng M, Jing W, Tian Z, et al. (December 2020). "Immunological regulation by a β-adrenergic-like octopamine receptor gene in crowded larvae of the oriental Armyworm, Mythmina separata". Developmental and Comparative Immunology. 113: 103802. doi:10.1016/j.dci.2020.103802. PMID   32712170. S2CID   220797641.
  35. ↑ Hopkin M (2007). "How to make a zombie cockroach". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2007.312.
  36. ↑ Gal R, Rosenberg LA, Libersat F (December 2005). "Parasitoid wasp uses a venom cocktail injected into the brain to manipulate the behavior and metabolism of its cockroach prey". Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology. 60 (4): 198–208. doi:10.1002/arch.20092. PMID   16304619.
  37. ↑ Sabandal JM, Sabandal PR, Kim YC, Han KA (May 2020). "Concerted Actions of Octopamine and Dopamine Receptors Drive Olfactory Learning". The Journal of Neuroscience. 40 (21): 4240–4250. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1756-19.2020. PMC   7244198 . PMID   32277043.
  38. ↑ Burke CJ, Huetteroth W, Owald D, Perisse E, Krashes MJ, Das G, et al. (December 2012). "Layered reward signalling through octopamine and dopamine in Drosophila". Nature. 492 (7429): 433–437. Bibcode:2012Natur.492..433B. doi:10.1038/nature11614. PMC   3528794 . PMID   23103875.
  39. ↑ Schwaerzel M, Monastirioti M, Scholz H, Friggi-Grelin F, Birman S, Heisenberg M (November 2003). "Dopamine and octopamine differentiate between aversive and appetitive olfactory memories in Drosophila". The Journal of Neuroscience. 23 (33): 10495–10502. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-33-10495.2003. PMC   6740930 . PMID   14627633.
  40. ↑ Schützler N, Girwert C, Hügli I, Mohana G, Roignant JY, Ryglewski S, et al. (February 2019). "Tyramine action on motoneuron excitability and adaptable tyramine/octopamine ratios adjust Drosophila locomotion to nutritional state". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (9): 3805–3810. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1813554116 . PMC   6397572 . PMID   30808766.
  41. ↑ Selcho M, Pauls D, El Jundi B, Stocker RF, Thum AS (November 2012). "The role of octopamine and tyramine in Drosophila larval locomotion". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 520 (16): 3764–3785. doi:10.1002/cne.23152. PMID   22627970. S2CID   17014658.
  42. ↑ Saraswati S, Fox LE, Soll DR, Wu CF (March 2004). "Tyramine and octopamine have opposite effects on the locomotion of Drosophila larvae". Journal of Neurobiology. 58 (4): 425–441. doi:10.1002/neu.10298. PMID   14978721.
  43. ↑ Ormerod KG, Jung J, Mercier AJ (September 2018). "Modulation of neuromuscular synapses and contraction in Drosophila 3rd instar larvae". Journal of Neurogenetics. 32 (3): 183–194. doi: 10.1080/01677063.2018.1502761 . PMID   30303434. S2CID   52948972.
  44. ↑ Andrews JC, Fernández MP, Yu Q, Leary GP, Leung AK, Kavanaugh MP, et al. (May 2014). Clandinin T (ed.). "Octopamine neuromodulation regulates Gr32a-linked aggression and courtship pathways in Drosophila males". PLOS Genetics. 10 (5): e1004356. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004356 . PMC   4031044 . PMID   24852170.
  45. ↑ Luo J, Lushchak OV, Goergen P, Williams MJ, Nässel DR (12 June 2014). Broughton S (ed.). "Drosophila insulin-producing cells are differentially modulated by serotonin and octopamine receptors and affect social behavior". PLOS ONE. 9 (6): e99732. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...999732L. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099732 . PMC   4055686 . PMID   24923784.
  46. ↑ Williams MJ, Goergen P, Rajendran J, Klockars A, Kasagiannis A, Fredriksson R, et al. (January 2014). "Regulation of aggression by obesity-linked genes TfAP-2 and Twz through octopamine signaling in Drosophila". Genetics. 196 (1): 349–362. doi:10.1534/genetics.113.158402. PMC   3872196 . PMID   24142897.
  47. ↑ Heberlein U, Wolf FW, Rothenfluh A, Guarnieri DJ (August 2004). "Molecular Genetic Analysis of Ethanol Intoxication in Drosophila melanogaster". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 44 (4): 269–274. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.536.262 . doi:10.1093/icb/44.4.269. PMID   21676709. S2CID   14762870.
  48. ↑ Tecott LH, Heberlein U (December 1998). "Y do we drink?". Cell. 95 (6): 733–735. doi: 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81695-5 . PMID   9865690.
  49. ↑ Williams R (22 June 2005). "Bar Flies: What our insect relatives can teach us about alcohol tolerance". Naked Scientist.
  50. ↑ Vince G (22 August 2005). "'Hangover gene' is key to alcohol tolerance". New Scientist.
  51. ↑ Selcho M, Pauls D (December 2019). "Linking physiological processes and feeding behaviors by octopamine". Current Opinion in Insect Science. 36: 125–130. doi:10.1016/j.cois.2019.09.002. PMID   31606580. S2CID   203470883.
  52. ↑ Sayin S, De Backer JF, Siju KP, Wosniack ME, Lewis LP, Frisch LM, et al. (November 2019). "A Neural Circuit Arbitrates between Persistence and Withdrawal in Hungry Drosophila". Neuron. 104 (3): 544–558.e6. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.07.028. PMC   6839618 . PMID   31471123.
  53. ↑ Jia Y, Jin S, Hu K, Geng L, Han C, Kang R, et al. (May 2021). "Gut microbiome modulates Drosophila aggression through octopamine signaling". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 2698. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.2698J. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-23041-y. PMC   8113466 . PMID   33976215.
  54. ↑ Schretter CE, Vielmetter J, Bartos I, Marka Z, Marka S, Argade S, et al. (November 2018). "A gut microbial factor modulates locomotor behaviour in Drosophila". Nature. 563 (7731): 402–406. Bibcode:2018Natur.563..402S. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0634-9. PMC   6237646 . PMID   30356215.
  55. ↑ Nall A, Sehgal A (June 2014). "Monoamines and sleep in Drosophila". Behavioral Neuroscience. 128 (3): 264–272. doi:10.1037/a0036209. PMID   24886188.
  56. ↑ Erion R, DiAngelo JR, Crocker A, Sehgal A (September 2012). "Interaction between sleep and metabolism in Drosophila with altered octopamine signaling". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 287 (39): 32406–32414. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M112.360875 . PMC   3463357 . PMID   22829591.
  57. ↑ Sujkowski A, Gretzinger A, Soave N, Todi SV, Wessells R (June 2020). Bai H (ed.). "Alpha- and beta-adrenergic octopamine receptors in muscle and heart are required for Drosophila exercise adaptations". PLOS Genetics. 16 (6): e1008778. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008778 . PMC   7351206 . PMID   32579604.
  58. ↑ Cobb T, Sujkowski A, Morton C, Ramesh D, Wessells R (July 2020). "Variation in mobility and exercise adaptations between Drosophila species". Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 206 (4): 611–621. doi:10.1007/s00359-020-01421-x. PMC   7314734 . PMID   32335730.
  59. ↑ Ahmed MA, Vogel CF (August 2020). "Hazardous effects of octopamine receptor agonists on altering metabolism-related genes and behavior of Drosophila melanogaster". Chemosphere. 253: 126629. Bibcode:2020Chmsp.25326629A. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126629. PMC   9888421 . PMID   32283422. S2CID   215757990.
  60. ↑ Li Y, Hoffmann J, Li Y, Stephano F, Bruchhaus I, Fink C, et al. (October 2016). "Octopamine controls starvation resistance, life span and metabolic traits in Drosophila". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): 35359. Bibcode:2016NatSR...635359L. doi:10.1038/srep35359. PMC   5069482 . PMID   27759117.
  61. ↑ Stohs SJ (January 2015). "Physiological functions and pharmacological and toxicological effects of p-octopamine". Drug and Chemical Toxicology. 38 (1): 106–112. doi:10.3109/01480545.2014.900069. PMID   24654910. S2CID   21901553.
  62. ↑ Haller CA, Benowitz NL, Jacob P (September 2005). "Hemodynamic effects of ephedra-free weight-loss supplements in humans". The American Journal of Medicine. 118 (9): 998–1003. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.02.034. PMID   16164886.
  63. ↑ "Prohibited In Competition – Stimulants". WADA. Archived from the original on 6 May 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
  64. ↑ Enan E (November 2001). "Insecticidal activity of essential oils: octopaminergic sites of action". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Toxicology & Pharmacology. 130 (3): 325–337. doi:10.1016/S1532-0456(01)00255-1. PMID   11701389.
  65. ↑ Rattan RS (1 September 2010). "Mechanism of action of insecticidal secondary metabolites of plant origin". Crop Protection. 29 (9): 913–920. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2010.05.008. ISSN   0261-2194.
  66. ↑ Maguire JJ, Davenport AP (20 February 2018). "Trace amine receptor: TA1 receptor". IUPHAR/BPS Guide to PHARMACOLOGY. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. Retrieved 16 July 2018.
  67. ↑ Heffernan ML, Herman LW, Brown S, Jones PG, Shao L, Hewitt MC, et al. (January 2022). "Ulotaront: A TAAR1 Agonist for the Treatment of Schizophrenia". ACS Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 13 (1) (published 6 December 2021): 92–98. doi:10.1021/acsmedchemlett.1c00527. PMC   8762745 . PMID   35047111.
  68. ↑ "Gene Group : OCTOPAMINE RECEPTORS". FlyBase. 16 October 2018.
  69. ↑ Zhou C, Rao Y, Rao Y (September 2008). "A subset of octopaminergic neurons are important for Drosophila aggression". Nature Neuroscience. 11 (9): 1059–1067. doi:10.1038/nn.2164. PMID   19160504. S2CID   1134848.