Fenethylline

Last updated

Fenethylline
INN: Fenetylline
Fenethylline.svg
Captagon molecule spacefill.png
Clinical data
AHFS/Drugs.com International Drug Names
Routes of
administration 		Oral
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Identifiers
  • (RS)-1,3-dimethyl- 7-[2-(1-phenylpropan-2-ylamino)ethyl]purine- 2,6-dione
CAS Number
PubChem CID
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard 100.115.827 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Chemical and physical data
Formula C18H23N5O2
Molar mass 341.415 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
Chirality Racemic mixture
  • O=C2N(c1ncn(c1C(=O)N2C)CCNC(C)Cc3ccccc3)C
  • InChI=1S/C18H23N5O2/c1-13(11-14-7-5-4-6-8-14)19-9-10-23-12-20-16-15(23)17(24)22(3)18(25)21(16)2/h4-8,12-13,19H,9-11H2,1-3H3 Yes check.svgY
  • Key:NMCHYWGKBADVMK-UHFFFAOYSA-N Yes check.svgY
 X mark.svgNYes check.svgY  (what is this?)    (verify)

Fenethylline (BAN, USAN) or fenetylline (INN) is a codrug of amphetamine and theophylline and so a mutual prodrug of both. It is also spelled phenethylline; other names for it are amphetamin​oethyl​theophylline and amfetyline. The drug was marketed for use as a psychostimulant under the brand names Captagon, Biocapton, and Fitton. [2] [3] It is now illegal in most countries and is produced primarily for illicit use. Syria is considered to be the world's largest producer of the drug, accounting for about 80% of the global supply. [4] [5] The global market for the drug is worth approximately $5.7 billion (USD). [6]

Contents

History

Fenethylline was first synthesized by the German pharmaceutical firm Degussa AG in 1961 and used for around 25 years as a milder alternative to amphetamine and related compounds. [7] Although there are no FDA-approved indications for fenethylline, it was used in the treatment of "hyperkinetic children", in what would now be called attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and, less commonly, for narcolepsy and depression. One of the main advantages of fenethylline was that it does not increase blood pressure to the same extent as an equivalent dose of amphetamine and so could be used in patients with cardiovascular conditions. [8]

Fenethylline was considered to have fewer side effects and less potential for abuse than amphetamine. Nevertheless, fenethylline was listed in 1981 as a schedule I controlled substance in the United States, and it became illegal in most countries in 1986 after being listed by the World Health Organization for international scheduling under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, even though the actual incidence of fenethylline abuse was quite low. [8] [ circular reference ]

Pharmacology

The fenethylline molecule results when theophylline is covalently linked with amphetamine by an alkyl chain. [9]

Fenethylline is metabolized by the body to form two drugs, amphetamine (24.5% of oral dose) and theophylline (13.7% of oral dose), both of which are active stimulants. The physiological effects of fenethylline therefore seem to result from a combination of these two compounds, [10] [11] [12] although it is not entirely clear how, and seems to involve a synergistic effect between amphetamine and theophylline produced following metabolism. [8] [13] The pharmacological actions of fenethylline before cleavage also remain poorly established, though it appears to act directly at several serotonin receptors. [14]

Abuse and illegal trade

Abuse of fenethylline using the former brand name Captagon is common in the Middle East, [15] [16] and counterfeit versions of the drug continue to be available despite its illegality. [17] [18] Fenethylline is much less common outside of the Middle East, to the point that police may not recognize the drug. Fenethylline production and export has become a significant industry sponsored by the Syrian government, with revenue from its exports contributing more than 90% of its foreign currency. [19] The Assad regime's annual fenethylline revenues were estimated to have been worth US$57 billion in 2022, about three times the total trade of all Mexican drug barons. [20] [21] [4]

Many of these counterfeit "Captagon" tablets contain other amphetamine derivatives that are easier to produce, but are pressed and stamped to look like Captagon pills. Some counterfeit Captagon pills analysed do contain fenethylline, indicating that illicit production of the drug continues to take place. [22] These illicit pills often contain "a mix of amphetamines, caffeine[,] and various fillers",[ This quote needs a citation ] which are sometimes referred to as "captagon" (with a lowercase "c").[ citation needed ]

Fenethylline is a popular drug in Western Asia, and American media outlet CNN reported in 2015 that it is allegedly used by militant groups in Syria. [23] Later research demonstrated that it was the Syrian government of Bashar al-Assad that has been financing production and sponsoring networks of its drug dealers in coordination with the Syrian intelligence. [24] It is manufactured locally by a cheap and simple process. In July 2019 in Lebanon, captagon was sold for $1.50 to $2.00 a pill. [25] In 2021 in Syria, low-quality pills were sold locally for less than $1, while high-quality pills are increasingly smuggled abroad and may cost upwards of $14 each in Saudi Arabia. [15]

According to some leaks, militant groups export the drug in exchange for weapons and cash. [26] [27] According to Abdelelah Mohammed Al-Sharif, secretary general of the National Committee for Narcotics Control and assistant director of Anti-Drug and Preventative Affairs, forty percent of users between the ages of twelve and twenty-two in Saudi Arabia are addicted to fenethylline. In 2017, fenethylline was the most popular recreational drug in the Arabian Peninsula. [28]

In October 2015, a member of the Saudi royal family, Prince Abdel Mohsen Bin Walid Bin Abdulaziz, and four others were detained in Beirut on charges of drug trafficking after airport security discovered two tons of fenethylline pills and some cocaine on a private jet scheduled to depart for Riyadh, the Saudi capital. [29] [30] [31] The following month, Agence France-Presse reported that Turkish authorities had seized two tonnes of fenethylline—about eleven million pills—during raids in the Hatay region on the Syrian border. The pills had been produced in Syria and were being shipped to countries in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. [32]

In December 2015, the Lebanese Army announced that it had discovered two large-scale drug production workshops in the north of the country and seized large quantities of fenethylline pills. Two days earlier, three tons of fenethylline and hashish were seized at Beirut Airport, concealed in school desks being exported to Egypt. [33]

Traces of the drug were found on a mobile phone used by Mohamed Lahouaiej Bouhlel, a French-Tunisian who killed eighty-four civilians in Nice on Bastille Day 2016. [34]

In May 2017, French customs at Charles de Gaulle Airport seized 750,000 fenethylline pills being transported from Lebanon to Saudi Arabia. [35] In 2017, two other consignments of pills were found at Charles de Gaulle Airport: in January, heading for the Czech Republic, and in February, hidden in steel moulds. [36] Further investigation showed that the seized products mainly contained a mixture of amphetamine and theophylline. [37]

In January 2018, Saudi Arabia seized 1.3 million fenethylline pills at the Al-Haditha crossing near the border with Jordan. [38] In December 2018, Greece intercepted a Syrian ship sailing for Libya, carrying six tonnes of processed cannabis and three million fenethylline pills. [39] In July 2019, a shipment of 33 million fenethylline pills, weighing 5.25 tonnes, was seized in Greece coming from Syria. [40] In July 2019, 800,000 fenethylline pills were found on a boat in the United Arab Emirates. [41] In August 2019, Saudi customs at Al-Haditha seized over 2.5 million fenethylline pills found inside a truck and a private vehicle. [42]

In February 2020, the UAE found 35 million fenethylline pills in a shipment of electric cables from Syria to Jebel Ali. [43] In April 2020, Saudi Arabia seized 44.7 million fenethylline pills smuggled from Syria, [44] and citing drug smuggling concerns, imposed an import ban on fruits and vegetables from Lebanon, causing the price of Lebanese lettuce to plummet. [45] [46] On 1 July 2020, an anti-drug operation coordinated in Italy by the Italian Guardia di Finanza and Customs and Monopolies Agency seized fourteen tonnes of amphetamines, labeled as Captagon, smuggled from Syria and initially thought by the Italian authorities to have been produced by ISIS, [47] [48] [49] which were found in three shipping containers filled with around 84 million pills, in the southern port of Salerno. [47] [48] [49] [50]

In November 2020, Egypt seized two shipments of fenethylline pills at Damietta port coming from Syria. The first had over 3.2 million tablets, [51] while the second contained 11 million. [52] In December 2020, Italian authorities seized about 14 tonnes of fenethylline arriving from Latakia, Syria, and heading towards Libya, consisting of about 85 million pills, worth around $1 billion. [53]

In January 2021, Egyptian authorities seized eight tons of fenethylline and another eight tons of hashish at Port Said, from a shipment that arrived from Lebanon. [54] In February 2021, Lebanese customs seized at Beirut port a shipment of 5 million fenethylline pills hidden in a tile-making machine, intended for Greece and Saudi Arabia. [55] In April 2021, Saudi authorities discovered 5.3 million fenethylline pills hidden in fruits imported from Lebanon. [56]

Production in Syria

127 bags of fenethylline seized in Syria before being destroyed in May 2018 Captagon.jpg
127 bags of fenethylline seized in Syria before being destroyed in May 2018

The drug has played a role in the Syrian civil war. [57] [58] The production and sale of fenethylline generates large revenues which are likely used to fund the purchase of weapons, and fenethylline is used as a stimulant by combatants. [58] [59] [60] Poverty and international sanctions that limit legal exports are contributing factors. [61]

In May 2021, The Guardian described the effects of fenethylline production in Syria on the economy as "a dirty business that is creating a near-narco-state". Drug money flowing into Syria is destabilizing legitimate businesses, positioning it as the global centre of fenethylline production, with increased industrialization, adaptation, and technical sophistication. [62] In June 2021, Saudi authorities at Jeddah port seized 14 million fenethylline tablets hidden inside a shipment of iron plates coming from Lebanon. [63] In the same month, Saudi authorities seized a shipment of 4.5 million fenethylline pills, smuggled inside several orange cartons, at Jeddah port. [64] In July 2021, Saudi customs discovered 2.1 million fenethylline pills at Al-Haditha hidden in a tomato paste shipment. [65]

The New York Times reported in December 2021 that the Syrian Army's elite 4th Armoured Division, commanded by Maher al-Assad, the brother of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, oversees much of the production and distribution of fenethylline, among other drugs. The unit controls manufacturing facilities, packing plants, and smuggling networks all across Syria, and had started to deal in crystal meth. [15] The division's security bureau, headed by Maj. Gen. Ghassan Bilal, provides protection for factories and along smuggling routes to the port city Latakia and to border crossings with Jordan and Lebanon. Jihad Yazigi, editor of The Syria Report, reported that fenethylline "has probably become Syria's most important source of foreign currency." [15]

Military use

Fenethylline is a major stimulant used amongst some jihadist fighters. It is sometimes dubbed the "Jihad drug" because of this. It quickly produces a euphoric intensity in users, allowing users to stay awake for very long periods of time. Along with this, one remains more calm and focused under the effects of the drug, which allows for ones senses to stay at more operational levels. It also helps to subdue feelings of fear and hunger, which is beneficial to conducting long term operations. [25] [66] [67] [68] Psychiatrist Dr. Robert Keisling says that the drug "gives you a sense of well-being and euphoria", along with the thought that "you're invincible and that nothing can harm you." [69] [66] Those who go on jihad missions take a lot of it to prepare, says a former fighter associated with the Muslim Brotherhood. He described the effect: "They go blank. Their heart rate spikes. They lose all connection to their emotions and thoughts." Some commented on this effect as a "zombielike detachment". [70] [71]

An illegal Syrian manufacturer told New York Magazine in 2015 of the effect the drug had on fighters: "[If] someone takes many pills, like 30 or so, they become violent and crazy, paranoid, unafraid of anything. They'll have a thirst for fighting and killing and will shoot at whatever they see. They lose any feeling or empathy for the people in front of them and can kill them without caring at all." [67]

According to some commentators, fighters taking the drug in Syria were better able to tolerate the pain of being shot [69] A drug control officer in the central city of Homs told Reuters that protestors and fighters were able to resist painful interrogations better while on fenethylline. [25] Former fighters have told the media that the pills helped them overcome their fear. Doctors report that the drug has dangerous side effects, including psychosis and brain damage. According to former fighters, hundreds became addicted to the pills they were given by brigade leaders without knowing what they were taking. [25]

Fenethylline use was associated with the rise of ISIS. [66] [69] One 19-year-old fighter named Kareem, who said he fought alongside ISIS for more than a year, told CNN in 2014: "They gave us drugs, hallucinogenic pills that would make you go to battle not caring if you live or die." [69]

In February 2023, Israel's Ministry of Defense thwarted an attempt to smuggle thousands of fenethylline tablets into the Gaza Strip. [72] Hamas claimed at the time that it seized 50,000 fenethylline pills on the border and claimed Israel was attempting to dope Gaza. [73]

Israel has publicly stated that fenethylline was used during the October 7 attacks, but this has been doubted by some experts. [74] Israeli forces said they had found fenethylline-containing tablets, powder, and liquid on the bodies of the attackers. [75] [76] But Caroline Rose of Newline Institute said that she had never seen fenethylline made in liquid form. While precursor chemicals for fenethylline tend to be in powdered form, fenethylline itself is not commonly a powder. She concluded "I find it somewhat difficult to believe that, in a single raid, we find two new forms of Captagon." [74] Videos compiled by the Israeli government of the Hamas attack — cobbled together from cell phones, GoPros, as well as car and surveillance cameras — supposedly show that at least some of the militants were under the influence of the drug. [77] [78] Some experts noted Israel had not made public direct evidence of Captagon use. [79]

Fenethylline was reportedly used by the ISIS attackers in the Crocus City Hall attack in 2024. [80] [81] [ better source needed ]

Synthesis

According to reviewers Pergolizzi Jr., et al., writing in 2024, the clandestine chemical synthesis of fenethylline is "straightforward and inexpensive". [82]

A reaction sequence[ clarification needed ]

Synthesis of fenethylline: Fenethylline synthesis.svg
Synthesis of fenethylline:

The overall transformation is accomplished in two laboratory steps, each requiring extraction and purification. In the first step, theophylline (1) is alkylated in a substitution reaction using 1-bromo-2-chloroethane (2) to give 7-(β-chloroethyl)theophylline (Benaphyllin, Eupnophile; 3).[ citation needed ] In the second step, the primary amine in amphetamine (4) displaces the terminal halide in 3 to give fenethylline (5).[ citation needed ]

Preparative conditions

Theophylline (1) reacts in the first step with 1-bromo-2-chloroethane (2) in solvent[ clarification needed ] under reflux at 90 °C for 18 hours,[ verification needed ] giving the 7-(β-chloroethyl)theophylline product (3) after cooling, filtration, extraction, drying, and chromatographic purification.[ citation needed ][ verification needed ] After purification, 3 is mixed directly in the second step, in absence of solvent,[ verification needed ] with amphetamine (4) and heated to 100 °C for 17 hours to produce fenethylline (5) after cooling, basifying, extraction, drying, and chromatographic purification.[ citation needed ][ verification needed ]

Synthesis of stable isotope derivatives

In addition, methods using the perdeuterated analog of 1,2-dichloroethane have yielded fenethylline-d4 (the deuterium atoms all lying in the ethyl-bridge between the two drugs); in the hands of these researchers, theophylline and 1,2-dichloroethane-d4 were refluxed in a first step at 80-90 °C for 18 h in 2-propanol / 0.75-molar aqueous sodium hydroxide (3:2) to give the chloroethyl-d4-theophylline intermediate (corresponding to 3 above) in 33% yield after extraction and chromatographic purification; this was followed by a second step of heating of this product and amphetamine without solvent to 100 °C for 17 hours to give the desired fenethylline-d4 in 48% yield (16% overall, again after extraction and chromatographic purification). [86] [87]

Compound identification

Since fenethylline is a controlled drug, a variety of identification methods are needed in order to regulate it. Many identification methods with different samples have been tested. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has been proven as an accurate tool to identify fenethylline in solid samples, as well as in urine and hair samples.[ citation needed ] [88]

Further reading

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Illegal drug trade</span> Global black market

The illegal drug trade, drug trafficking, or narcotrafficking is a global black market dedicated to the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of prohibited drugs. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of many types of drugs through the use of drug prohibition laws. The think tank Global Financial Integrity's Transnational Crime and the Developing World report estimates the size of the global illicit drug market between US$426 and US$652 billion in 2014 alone. With a world GDP of US$78 trillion in the same year, the illegal drug trade may be estimated as nearly 1% of total global trade. Consumption of illegal drugs is widespread globally, and it remains very difficult for local authorities to reduce the rates of drug consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Narco-state</span> Political and economic term

Narco-state is a political and economic term applied to countries where all legitimate institutions become penetrated by the power and wealth of the illegal drug trade. The term was first used to describe Bolivia following the 1980 coup of Luis García Meza which was seen to be primarily financed with the help of narcotics traffickers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rifaat al-Assad</span> Syrian general and politician (born 1937)

Rifaat Ali al-Assad is the younger brother of the late President of Syria, Hafez al-Assad, and Jamil al-Assad, and the uncle of the incumbent President Bashar al-Assad. He was the commanding officer of the ground operations of the 1982 Hama massacre ordered by Hafez al-Assad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maher al-Assad</span> Syrian general and commander of the 4th Division

Major General Maher al-Assad is a Syrian military officer and commander of the Syrian Army's elite 4th Armoured Division, which, together with Syria's Military Intelligence, forms the core of the country's security forces. He is the younger brother of Syrian president Bashar al-Assad, and also a member of the Central Committee of the Syrian Ba'ath Party.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Syrian civil war</span> Multi-sided war in Syria (2011–present)

The Syrian civil war is an ongoing multi-sided conflict in Syria involving various state-sponsored and non-state actors. In March 2011, popular discontent with the rule of Bashar al-Assad triggered large-scale protests and pro-democracy rallies across Syria, as part of the wider Arab Spring protests in the region. After months of crackdown by the government's security apparatus, various armed rebel groups such as the Free Syrian Army began forming across the country, marking the beginning of the Syrian insurgency. By mid-2012, the crisis had escalated into a full-blown civil war.

The Axis of Resistance is an informal Iranian-led political and military coalition in the Middle East.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war</span> Political, military and operational support to parties involved in the ongoing conflict in Syria

Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war refers to political, military and operational support to parties involved in the ongoing conflict in Syria that began in March 2011, as well as active foreign involvement. Most parties involved in the war in Syria receive various types of support from foreign countries and entities based outside Syria. The ongoing conflict in Syria is widely described as a series of overlapping proxy wars between the regional and world powers, primarily between the United States and Russia as well as between Iran and Saudi Arabia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iran–Israel proxy conflict</span> Ongoing conflict in Western Asia

The Iran–Israel proxy conflict, also known as the Iran–Israel proxy war or Iran–Israel Cold War, is an ongoing proxy conflict between Iran and Israel. In the Israeli–Lebanese conflict, Iran has supported Lebanese Shia militias, most notably Hezbollah. In the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, Iran has backed Palestinian groups such as Hamas. Israel has supported Iranian rebels, such as the People's Mujahedin of Iran, conducted airstrikes against Iranian allies in Syria and assassinated Iranian nuclear scientists. In 2018 Israeli forces directly attacked Iranian forces in Syria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war</span>

The Islamic Republic of Iran and the Syrian Arab Republic are close strategic allies, and Iran has provided significant support for the Syrian government in the Syrian civil war, including logistical, technical and financial support, as well as training and some combat troops. Iran sees the survival of the Syrian government as being crucial to its regional interests. When the uprising developed into the Syrian Civil War, there were increasing reports of Iranian military support, and of Iranian training of the National Defence Forces both in Syria and Iran. From late 2011 and early 2012, Iran's IRGC began sending tens of thousands of Iranian troops and foreign paramilitary volunteers in coordination with the Syrian government to prevent the collapse of the Syrian Arab Army; thereby polarising the conflict along sectarian lines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spillover of the Syrian civil war</span> 2011–2019 external impact of the Syrian Civil War

Following the outbreak of the protests of Syrian revolution during the Arab Spring in 2011 and the escalation of the ensuing conflict into a full-scale civil war by mid-2012, the Syrian Civil War became a theatre of proxy warfare between various regional powers such as Turkey and Iran. Spillover of the Syrian civil war into the wider region began when the Iraqi insurgent group known as the Islamic State of Iraq (ISI) started intervening in the conflict in 2012.

The following is a timeline of the Syrian civil war from August to December 2014. Information about aggregated casualty counts is found at Casualties of the Syrian Civil War.

The following is a timeline of the Syrian Civil War from August to December 2015. Information about aggregated casualty counts is found at Casualties of the Syrian Civil War.

Collaboration with the Islamic State refers to the cooperation and assistance given by governments, non-state actors, and private individuals to the Islamic State (IS) during the Syrian Civil War, Iraqi Civil War, and Libyan Civil War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lebanon–Saudi Arabia relations</span> Bilateral relations

The diplomatic relations between Lebanon and Saudi Arabia are the relationship between two Arab nations in the Middle East. Lebanon has an embassy in Riyadh and Saudi Arabia has one in Beirut.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corruption in Syria</span>

Corruption in Syria follows the familiar patterns of state-based corruption, namely government officials abusing their political powers for private gain in the country of Syria.

Syrian foreign policy during the presidency of Bashar al-Assad is based on continuity from the Cold War-era policies of his father and predecessor, Hafiz al-Assad. Hafiz al-Assad was a strong supporter of Soviet Union and aligned Ba'athist Syria closely with the Eastern Bloc. During this period, Syria adopted a strong anti-Zionist posture in the region, based on its military doctrine of gaining "strategic parity" and forming joint Arab initiatives.

The drug economy in Lebanon refers to the expanding Lebanese involvement in both drug production and trade, a phenomenon substantiated by studies. The economic and political upheaval in Lebanon, as delineated in a study by the Euro-Gulf Information Center, has driven Hezbollah, wherein narcotics serve as a notable revenue stream, to intensify its involvement in the drug economy. Western intelligence agencies estimate that Lebanon produces over 4 million pounds of hashish and 20,000 pounds of heroin annually, generating profits exceeding US$4 billion. According to The Washington Post, Lebanon's drug industry contributes substantially to the country's economy, accounting for over half of its foreign-exchange earnings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Syrian Captagon industry</span> Illicit drug manufacturing by Syria

The Syrian Captagon industry is responsible for about 80% of the global production of the Captagon drug. Syria exports the drug to various countries, mainly in the Middle East region, including Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Gulf states, and Egypt, as well as to organizations such as Hamas and ISIS. The drug export is one of the main sources of income for the government of Bashar al-Assad, helping it to rebuild the country from the economic crisis that followed the Syrian Civil War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nouh Zaiter</span> Lebanese drug lord

Nouh Zaiter is a Lebanese drug lord and a leader of an armed militia in the Beqaa Valey, involved in drug trafficking and arms dealing in Lebanon and the Middle East. He's often in the news due to his alleged connections with Hezbollah and the Syrian regime, and his involvement in the drug trade, particularly Captagon.

References

  1. ↑ Anvisa (31 March 2023). "RDC Nº 784 - Listas de Substâncias Entorpecentes, Psicotrópicas, Precursoras e Outras sob Controle Especial" [Collegiate Board Resolution No. 784 - Lists of Narcotic, Psychotropic, Precursor, and Other Substances under Special Control] (in Brazilian Portuguese). Diário Oficial da União (published 4 April 2023). Archived from the original on 3 August 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2023.
  2. ↑ Dictionary of Organic Compounds. CRC Press. 1996. pp. 3140–. ISBN   978-0-412-54090-5.
  3. ↑ Index Nominum 2000: International Drug Directory. Taylor & Francis. 2000. pp. 431–. ISBN   978-3-88763-075-1.
  4. 1 2 Alkhaldi C (11 April 2023). "A little-known drug brought billions to Syria's coffers. Now it's a bargaining chip". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 May 2023.
  5. ↑ "What is Captagon, the addictive drug mass-produced in Syria?". Al Jazeera News. 9 May 2023. Archived from the original on 5 June 2023.
  6. ↑ Rasmussen S (28 October 2024). "The Middle East Drug Fueling War, Crime and All-Night Parties". The Wall Street Journal.
  7. ↑ Kristen G, Schaefer A, von Schlichtegroll A (June 1986). "Fenetylline: therapeutic use, misuse and/or abuse". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 17 (2–3): 259–271. doi:10.1016/0376-8716(86)90012-8. PMID   3743408.
  8. 1 2 3 Katselou M, Papoutsis I, Nikolaou P, Qammaz S, Spiliopoulou C, Athanaselis S (August 2016). "Fenethylline (Captagon) Abuse - Local Problems from an Old Drug Become Universal". Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 119 (2): 133–140. doi: 10.1111/bcpt.12584 . PMID   27004621.
  9. ↑ Nickel B, Niebch G, Peter G, von Schlichtegroll A, Tibes U (June 1986). "Fenetylline: new results on pharmacology, metabolism and kinetics". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 17 (2–3): 235–257. doi:10.1016/0376-8716(86)90011-6. PMID   3743407.
  10. ↑ Ellison T, Levy L, Bolger JW, Okun R (1970). "The metabolic fate of 3H-fenetylline in man". European Journal of Pharmacology. 13 (1): 123–128. doi:10.1016/0014-2999(70)90192-5. PMID   5496920.
  11. ↑ Alabdalla MA (September 2005). "Chemical characterization of counterfeit captagon tablets seized in Jordan". Forensic Science International. 152 (2–3): 185–188. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.08.004. PMID   15978343.
  12. ↑ Wenthur CJ, Zhou B, Janda KD (August 2017). "Vaccine-driven pharmacodynamic dissection and mitigation of fenethylline psychoactivity". Nature. 548 (7668): 476–479. Bibcode:2017Natur.548..476W. doi:10.1038/nature23464. PMC   5957549 . PMID   28813419.
  13. ↑ Wu N, Feng Z, He X, Kwon W, Wang J, Xie XQ (February 2019). "Insight of Captagon Abuse by Chemogenomics Knowledgebase-guided Systems Pharmacology Target Mapping Analyses". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 2268. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-35449-6. PMC   6381188 . PMID   30783122.
  14. ↑ Wang YQ, Lin WW, Wu N, Wang SY, Chen MZ, Lin ZH, et al. (September 2019). "Structural insight into the serotonin (5-HT) receptor family by molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation and systems pharmacology analysis". Acta Pharmacologica Sinica. 40 (9): 1138–1156. doi:10.1038/s41401-019-0217-9. PMC   6786385 . PMID   30814658.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Hubbard B, Saad H (5 December 2021). "On Syria's Ruins, a Drug Empire Flourishes". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  16. ↑ "Middle East's drug of choice". Le Monde diplomatique. 1 July 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
  17. ↑ "2011 Global Assessment of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants" (PDF). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
  18. ↑ "Why would the Islamic State group try to smuggle the 'drug of the Jihad' into Europe?". www.abc.net.au. 2 July 2020. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  19. ↑ Wood P (19 November 2022). "How Syria became the world's most profitable narco state". The Spectator. Archived from the original on 6 January 2023.
  20. ↑ Jalabi R (28 March 2023). "Assad cousins hit with sanctions over amphetamine trade that funds regime". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 28 March 2023.
  21. ↑ "Tackling the illicit drug trade fuelling Assad's war machine". Gov.uk. 28 March 2023. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023.
  22. ↑ Alshehri AZ, Al Qahtani MS, Al Qahtani MA, Faeq AM, Aljohani J (2020). "Study of Adulterants and Diluents in Some Seized Captagon-Type Stimulants" (PDF). Annals of Clinical Nutrition. 3 (1). MedDocs Publishers: 1017.
  23. ↑ Todd B, McConnell D (21 November 2015). "Syria fighters may be fueled by amphetamines". CNN . Retrieved 22 November 2015.
  24. ↑ "The Syrian Economy at War: Captagon, Hashish, and the Syrian Narco-State". Center for Operational Analysis and Research. 27 April 2021. Archived from the original on 19 May 2023. Whereas attention has been lavished on drug use among combatants, little attention has been paid to the societal and individual costs of the pervasive spread of narcotics during the conflict. Even more neglected are the structural dynamics of drug trafficking and their impact on the trajectory of the conflict itself. As the Syrian state has re-consolidated control over much of the country since 2018, narcotics trafficking in Syria has become more expansive and widespread. In parallel, the decimation of conventional economic activities has increased the relative attractiveness of industrial-scale drug profiteering, which has been largely captured and controlled by narco-entrepreneurs linked to the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and the regime's foreign allies. Ironically, the armed group commonly thought to be most closely associated with the Captagon trade — Islamic State — is, in fact, among the few conflict actors that has had no demonstrable institutional connection to the trade of this drug. This association has persisted in large part because of sensational foreign media coverage. the narcotics trade was decisively reconfigured to the advantage of pro-Government forces. Increasingly prominent in this period are narco-entrepreneurs affiliated with the Assad regime. Record-setting foreign drug interceptions since 2018 evince the evolution of Syria's drug industry, with exports of Captagon and hashish suggesting new levels of mass production.
  25. 1 2 3 4 Holley P (19 November 2015). "The tiny pill fueling Syria's war and turning fighters into superhuman soldiers". The Washington Post . Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  26. ↑ Freeman C (12 January 2014). "Syria's civil war being fought with fighters high on drugs". The Telegraph. Retrieved 13 January 2014.
  27. ↑ Kalin S (12 January 2014). "Insight: War turns Syria into major amphetamines producer, consumer". Reuters . Retrieved 21 April 2014.
  28. ↑ "A new drug of choice in the Gulf". The Economist . 18 July 2017. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
  29. ↑ Spencer R (26 October 2015). "Saudi prince held after seizure of two tonnes of amphetamines at Beirut airport". The Daily Telegraph . Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  30. ↑ Baker G (26 October 2015). "Saudi prince arrested in Lebanon trying to smuggle two tonnes of amphetamine pills out of the country by private jet". The Independent . Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  31. ↑ Vinograd C, Kassem M (26 October 2015). "Saudi Royal, Four Others Detained in Beirut Captagon Bust". NBC News . Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  32. ↑ "Turkey seizes 11 million pills of 'Syria war drug': Reports". Agence France-Presse. Istanbul. 20 November 2015. Archived from the original on 25 November 2015. Retrieved 20 November 2015– via The Times of India.
  33. ↑ The Daily Star (Lebanon): Tuesday raids in east Lebanon netted 800 kg of hash:police and Lebanese Army busts two drug factories
  34. ↑ Sanchez R (21 July 2016). "Attacker in Nice plotted for months with 'accomplices'". CNN. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
  35. ↑ Taylor A (30 May 2017). "In a first, authorities say they found 750,000 'Captagon' pills in France". The Washington Post.
  36. ↑ "Customs seize 135 kg of captagon for first time in France". rfi.fr. 30 May 2017.
  37. ↑ "Les 135 kilos de drogue saisis n'étaient pas du Captagon, "la drogue des djihadistes"". Le Parisien. 2017.
  38. ↑ "Saudi customs bust drug smugglers with haul of 1.3m pills". Arab News. 12 January 2018.
  39. ↑ Koutantou A, Kambas M, Stamp D (14 December 2018). "Greece seizes big drugs haul from Syrian freighter sailing for Libya". London: Reuters. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  40. ↑ Georgiopoulos G, Heinrich M (5 July 2019). "Greece seizes record amount of amphetamine Captagon shipped from Syria". London: Reuters. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  41. ↑ "Dogs help seize 800,000 Captagon pills worth Dh3 million". Gulf News. 24 July 2019.
  42. ↑ "Saudi officials stop Captagon smuggling plots". Arabian Business. 21 August 2019.
  43. ↑ "Video: Massive drug bust in Dubai, 5.6 tonnes of captagon seized". Khaleej Times. 26 February 2020.
  44. ↑ "Saudi Arabia busts drug smuggling operation from Assad's Syria". Middle East Monitor. 30 April 2020.
  45. ↑ Dag B. "Saudi Arabia bans fruit, vegetable imports from Lebanon". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
  46. ↑ Kanaan A, El Dahan M, Blair E (12 May 2021). Shirbon E (ed.). "Lebanese fear fruit and vegetables going to waste with Saudi market shut". Reuters. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
  47. 1 2 Del Porto D, Foschini G (1 July 2020). "Salerno, sequestrate 84 milioni di pasticche di droga dell'Isis: le stesse usate dai terroristi del Bataclan". La Repubblica (in Italian). Rome. Retrieved 21 July 2020.; Foschini G (10 July 2020). ""La droga dell'Isis non-era dell'Isis": quelle 14 tonnellate di anfetamine sequestrate in Italia e il legame con la Siria di Assad". La Repubblica (in Italian). Rome. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  48. 1 2 Givetash L, Lavanga C (1 July 2020). "Italian police seize 14 tons of amphetamines with possible ISIS link". London: NBC News. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  49. 1 2 Nadeau BL (1 July 2020). "Italian Police on Amalfi Coast Seize 84 Million 'Captagon' Pills Shipped by ISIS From Syria". The Daily Beast . Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  50. ↑ "Captagon: Italy seizes €1bn of amphetamines 'made to fund IS'". BBC News. 1 July 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  51. ↑ "Egyptian police seize container with 1,858 Captagon drug packets". Egypt Independent. 15 November 2020.
  52. ↑ "Attempt to smuggle 11M drug tablets in container thwarted". Egypt Today. 30 November 2020.
  53. ↑ Chaundy F, Miglierini J (21 December 2020). "Captagon: Destroying the frontline drug". BBC News. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
  54. ↑ "Egypt busts massive drugs haul worth Dh143m". Gulf News. 6 January 2021.
  55. ↑ "Lebanon seizes 5m captagon pills at Beirut port". Arab News. 3 February 2021.
  56. ↑ Houssari N (25 April 2021). "Lebanon vows to punish drug smugglers as Saudi import ban bites". Arab News.
  57. ↑ Lopez G (20 November 2015). "Captagon, ISIS's favorite amphetamine, explained". Vox.
  58. 1 2 Henley J (13 January 2014). "Captagon: the amphetamine fuelling Syria's civil war". The Guardian . Retrieved 31 December 2015.
  59. ↑ Kalin S. "Insight – War turns Syria into major amphetamines producer, consumer". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
  60. ↑ Baker A. "Syria's Breaking Bad: Are Amphetamines Funding the War?". Time. ISSN   0040-781X . Retrieved 3 February 2016.
  61. ↑ "The Arab World's New Drug of Choice". BBC Radio 4 . 4 June 2022.
  62. ↑ Chulov M (7 May 2021). "'A dirty business': how one drug is turning Syria into a narco-state". The Guardian.
  63. ↑ "14 million Captagon amphetamine pills coming from Lebanon seized". Saudi Gazette. 26 June 2021.
  64. ↑ "Saudi Arabia seizes 4.5m amphetamine pills hidden in oranges". Al Jazeera. 30 June 2021.
  65. ↑ Al Sherbini R (24 July 2021). "Saudis bust bid to smuggle 2 million Captagon pills". Gulf News.
  66. 1 2 3 "Was Hamas drug crazed from Captagon during Oct. 7 attacks?". USA Today . 18 February 2024. Archived from the original on 18 February 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
  67. 1 2 "The drug that stimulates, and finances, terrorists". Globes. 11 December 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
  68. ↑ Gotev G (16 November 2023). "The brief – the captagon fighters". Euractive.com.
  69. 1 2 3 4 McConnell D, Todd B (20 November 2015). "Syria fighters may be fueled by amphetamines". CNN. Archived from the original on 4 November 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
  70. ↑ Anderson S (9 December 2015). "These Are the People Making Captagon, the Drug ISIS Fighters Take to Feel 'Invincible'". Intelligencer. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
  71. ↑ Rose C, Söderholm A (2022). The Captagon Threat A Profile of Illicit Trade, Consumption, and Regional Realities (PDF) (Report). Washington: New Lines Institute. pp. 14–15.
  72. ↑ Ecanow N (10 February 2023). "Captagon: Assad's deadly drug of choice expands to Israel". Foundation for Defense of Democracy.
  73. ↑ Sally I (21 February 2023). "Hamas seizes 50,000 captagon pills in Gaza, blaming Israel as source". The New Arab.
  74. 1 2 Gault M (3 November 2023). "U.S. and Israeli Officials Claim Hamas Was High During Oct. 7 Attack. Is It True?". Vice. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  75. ↑ Lahav E (29 October 2023). "Jihad on speed: captagon at the service of terror organization's". IDSF.
  76. ↑ Meyer J, Hjelmgaard K (2 November 2023). "Were the Hamas attacks on Israel so brutal because the killers were high on the drug captagon?". USA Today. Archived from the original on 18 February 2024.
  77. ↑ Solomon J (1 November 2023). "Some Hamas killers were high on amphetamine, officials say". Semafor.
  78. ↑ Coleman T (15 November 2023). "A drug called captagon may have helped fuel Hamas' attack on Israel". The Week.
  79. ↑ Slayton N (8 November 2023). "Did a stimulant known as 'the drug of jihad' fuel Hamas terror on Oct. 7?". Task & Purpose. Retrieved 30 April 2024. Israeli security forces have not produced any evidence to back up the claims put out in those outlets by anonymous officials. In the month since Oct. 7, Israel has not shown photographic or chemical evidence showing any widespread captagon use by Hamas in the attacks last month.
  80. ↑ Davis, Katie & Stewart, Will (28 March 2024). "Terror zombies. Moscow attackers were high on ISIS's favourite drug 'Chemical Courage' that turned them into fearless killing machines," The Sun.
  81. ↑ Fahey, Ryan (29 March 2024). "Moscow attackers were high on ISIS top drug 'Chemical Courage' making them into killing machines," The Mirror.
  82. ↑ Pergolizzi Jr., J. LeQuang, J.K.; Vortsman, E.; Magnusson, P.; EL-Tallawy, S.N.; Wagner, M.; Salah, R. & Varrassi, G. (27 February 2024). "The Emergence of the Old Drug Captagon as a New Illicit Drug: A Narrative Review". Cureus. 16 (2): e55053. doi: 10.7759/cureus.55053 . PMC   10977473 . PMID   38550445.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  83. ↑ Rücker G, Neugebauer M, Neugebauer M, Heiden PG (December 1987). "Zur chemischen Stabilität des Fenetyllins" [The chemical stability of fenethylline]. Archiv der Pharmazie (in German). 320 (12): 1272–1275. doi:10.1002/ardp.198700045. PMID   3439867. S2CID   84235752.
  84. ↑ DE 1123329,Kohlstaedt E, Klingler KH,issued 1962, assigned to Chemiewerk Homburg Zweignieder.
  85. ↑ GB 927288,Kohlstaedt E, Klingler KH,issued 1962, assigned to Chemiewerk Homburg Zweignieder."[Title] 1-and 7-(basically-substituted-alkyl) xanthine derivatives, a process for their manufacture and pharmaceutical compositions containing them. [Front page drawing] X—A—NH—CH(R1)—CH2—R2 [Abstract] The invention comprises compounds of the general formula wherein X represents a 1-theobromine or 7-theophylline radical, A is a straight or branched chain alkylene radical, R1 is an alkyl radical of 1-3 carbon atoms and R2 is an aryl, e.g. phenyl radical, together with acid addition salts thereof, and comprises also the preparation of those compounds by reacting a haloalkyl-xanthine X-A-Halogen with an aralkylamine of the formula H2N-CH(R1)-CH2-R2, preferably at 70 DEG -170 DEG C. in an inert solvent such as toluene in the presence of an acid-binding agent such as potassium carbonate..."
  86. ↑ You ZY, Chen YJ, Wang YY, Chen C (June 2008). "Synthesis of Deuterium Labeled Standards of 1-Benzylpiperazine, Fenetylline, Nicocodeine and Nicomorphine". Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society. 55 (3): 663–667. doi:10.1002/jccs.200800099.
  87. ↑ In the first step, the explicit method described dissolving the theophylline starting material in an aqueous solution of a defined amount of sodium hydroxide in water, then added this to the perdeuterated starting material dissolved in 2-propanol, after which the reflux was begun. See You et al. 2008, op. cit.
  88. ↑ Kikura R, Nakahara Y (1997). "Hair analysis for drugs of abuse. XVI. Disposition of fenethylline and its metabolite into hair and discrimination between fenethylline use and amphetamine use by hair analysis". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 21 (4): 291–296. doi:10.1093/jat/21.4.291. PMID   9248947.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.