Reading for special needs

Last updated

Reading for special needs has become an area of interest as the understanding of reading has improved. Teaching children with special needs how to read was not historically pursued under the assumption of the reading readiness model [1] that a reader must learn to read in a hierarchical manner such that one skill must be mastered before learning the next skill (e.g. a child might be expected to learn the names of the letters in the alphabet in the correct order before being taught how to read his or her name). [2] This approach often led to teaching sub-skills of reading in a decontextualized manner, preventing students with special needs from progressing to more advanced literacy lessons and subjecting them to repeated age-inappropriate instruction (e.g. singing the alphabet song).

Contents

During the 1970s, the education system shifted to targeting functional skills that were age-appropriate for people with special needs. [3] [4] This led to teaching sight words that were viewed as necessary for participation in the school and community (e.g. exit, danger, poison, go). This approach was an improvement upon previous practices, but it limited the range of literacy skills that people with special needs developed. [2]

A newer model for reading development, the "emergent literacy" or "early literacy" model, purports that children begin reading from birth and that learning to read is an interactive process based on children's exposure to literate activities. It is under this new model that children with developmental disabilities and special needs have been considered to be able to learn to read. [5] [6]

Populations at increased risk

Children with language difficulties that fall below expectations for their chronological age are at increased risk for reading disorders or difficulties that can occur early in preschool and continue throughout development. [7] Children with other disabilities, such as developmental disability, autism spectrum disorder, Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and cerebral palsy, can also have language impairments that raise the risk of developing reading problems.

Down syndrome

It has been found true for children with intellectual disabilities, such as children with Down syndrome, that phonological awareness skills are often deficient and require targeted teaching. [8] For example, studies have found that children with Down syndrome show deficits in phonological awareness, and though they can develop such skills, often rely on sight word vocabulary knowledge rather than phonological awareness skills to decode words. [9] Given this, it is recommended that phonological awareness skills be taught in a systematic manner with explicit instruction of how to use these skills when reading.

Autism

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have been identified as having particular difficulties with reading comprehension despite normal decoding abilities,. [10] [11] [12] Historically, those individuals who are especially good at decoding but have poor comprehension are considered to have hyperlexia. [13] Not all individuals with autism, however, are poor comprehenders as there is a wide range of abilities in children on the spectrum. [14] Despite the type of reader an individual with autism might be, individuals should be given the opportunity to learn to read. [15] Very few studies have examined the effectiveness of interventions for reading for individuals with ASD. [16] Using computer-assisted instruction to implement programs for individuals with ASD that target skills in decoding could be an effective way to help improve these skills in these individuals. [17] [18] [19] [20] Procedural facilitation tasks such as prereading questions, anaphoric cuing, or a cloze task helped to improve reading comprehension with the anaphoric cuing task being the most effective task. [10]

Cerebral palsy

Children with cerebral palsy (CP) may or may not have motor speech impairments and/or language impairments, [21] which can lead to reading difficulties. Often children with CP can be classified as having severe speech and physical impairments (SSPI), but children with other disorders can fall into this category as well. Children with SSPI can be at increased risk for reading difficulties not only because they may have language impairments, but also because they can have limited literary experiences and limited reading instruction. [22] [23] Additionally, parents and teachers may have low expectations of the child's ability to become a reader, which may influence experiences with text and impact literacy instruction. [24] Assistive technology (also Alternative and Augmentative Communication devices; AAC) can be used to overcome physical barriers to manipulating books, and to augment speech motor and language difficulties (e.g., type, or select symbols to identify rhyming words), and cognitive impairments (to provide needed support required for target skill acquisition) (Copeland & Keef, 2007, see chapter 9). [2] Of course, access to assistive devices is not sufficient for reading development. Appropriate reading instruction is required (e.g., instruction in phonological awareness skills, phonemic awareness skills, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, text comprehension, and book conventions), regularly conducted story reading sessions, constructive AT/AAC use to target literacy skills, high expectations of student literacy achievement, and text-rich environments have been found to be important for developing literacy skills in children with CP. [22]

Interventions

Classroom teachers [25] are expected to provide the primary source of reading instruction for most students. Special education teachers [26] may supplement the classroom instruction in reading and writing skills based on the independent performance of their students. Other professionals including a reading specialist, [27] a speech-language pathologist, [28] an educational or school psychologist, [29] and an occupational therapist [30] may also provide reading and writing support to individuals with reading and writing difficulties.

People with severe speech difficulties can use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices. AAC proponents insist that AAC enables such individuals to express needs, wants, and ideas. [31] Evidence indicates that few AAC users are able to progress to a second grade literacy level and many do not become conventionally "literate" at all. [32]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hyperlexia</span> Significantly advanced reading ability in children

Hyperlexia is a syndrome characterized by a child's precocious ability to read. It was initially identified by Norman E. Silberberg and Margaret C. Silberberg (1967), who defined it as the precocious ability to read words without prior training in learning to read, typically before the age of five. They indicated that children with hyperlexia have a significantly higher word-decoding ability than their reading comprehension levels. Children with hyperlexia also present with an intense fascination for written material at a very early age.

A communication disorder is any disorder that affects an individual's ability to comprehend, detect, or apply language and speech to engage in dialogue effectively with others. This also encompasses deficiencies in verbal and non-verbal communication styles. The delays and disorders can range from simple sound substitution to the inability to understand or use one's native language. This article covers subjects such as diagnosis, the DSM-IV, the DSM-V, and examples like sensory impairments, aphasia, learning disabilities, and speech disorders.

Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder is a communication disorder in which both the receptive and expressive areas of communication may be affected in any degree, from mild to severe. Children with this disorder have difficulty understanding words and sentences. This impairment is classified by deficiencies in expressive and receptive language development that is not attributed to sensory deficits, nonverbal intellectual deficits, a neurological condition, environmental deprivation or psychiatric impairments. Research illustrates that 2% to 4% of five year olds have mixed receptive-expressive language disorder. This distinction is made when children have issues in expressive language skills, the production of language, and when children also have issues in receptive language skills, the understanding of language. Those with mixed receptive-language disorder have a normal left-right anatomical asymmetry of the planum temporale and parietale. This is attributed to a reduced left hemisphere functional specialization for language. Taken from a measure of cerebral blood flow (SPECT) in phonemic discrimination tasks, children with mixed receptive-expressive language disorder do not exhibit the expected predominant left hemisphere activation. Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder is also known as receptive-expressive language impairment (RELI) or receptive language disorder.

Phonological awareness is an individual's awareness of the phonological structure, or sound structure, of words. Phonological awareness is an important and reliable predictor of later reading ability and has, therefore, been the focus of much research.

Specific language impairment (SLI) is diagnosed when a child's language does not develop normally and the difficulties cannot be accounted for by generally slow development, physical abnormality of the speech apparatus, autism spectrum disorder, apraxia, acquired brain damage or hearing loss. Twin studies have shown that it is under genetic influence. Although language impairment can result from a single-gene mutation, this is unusual. More commonly SLI results from the combined influence of multiple genetic variants, each of which is found in the general population, as well as environmental influences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Augmentative and alternative communication</span> Techniques used for those with communication impairments

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) encompasses the communication methods used to supplement or replace speech or writing for those with impairments in the production or comprehension of spoken or written language. AAC is used by those with a wide range of speech and language impairments, including congenital impairments such as cerebral palsy, intellectual impairment and autism, and acquired conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinson's disease. AAC can be a permanent addition to a person's communication or a temporary aid. Stephen Hawking, probably the best-known user of AAC, had amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and communicated through a speech-generating device.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to autism:

A reading disability is a condition in which a person displays difficulty reading. Examples of reading disabilities include developmental dyslexia and alexia.

Language disorders or language impairments are disorders that involve the processing of linguistic information. Problems that may be experienced can involve grammar, semantics (meaning), or other aspects of language. These problems may be receptive, expressive, or a combination of both. Examples include specific language impairment, better defined as developmental language disorder, or DLD, and aphasia, among others. Language disorders can affect both spoken and written language, and can also affect sign language; typically, all forms of language will be impaired.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Speech–language pathology</span> Disability therapy profession

Speech–language pathology is a healthcare and academic discipline concerning the evaluation, treatment, and prevention of communication disorders, including expressive and mixed receptive-expressive language disorders, voice disorders, speech sound disorders, speech disfluency, pragmatic language impairments, and social communication difficulties, as well as swallowing disorders across the lifespan. It is an allied health profession regulated by professional bodies including the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) and Speech Pathology Australia. The field of speech-language pathology is practiced by a clinician known as a speech-language pathologist (SLP) or a speech and language therapist (SLT). SLPs also play an important role in the screening, diagnosis, and treatment of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), often in collaboration with pediatricians and psychologists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Learning disability</span> Range of neurodevelopmental conditions

Learning disability, learning disorder, or learning difficulty is a condition in the brain that causes difficulties comprehending or processing information and can be caused by several different factors. Given the "difficulty learning in a typical manner", this does not exclude the ability to learn in a different manner. Therefore, some people can be more accurately described as having a "learning difference", thus avoiding any misconception of being disabled with a possible lack of an ability to learn and possible negative stereotyping. In the United Kingdom, the term "learning disability" generally refers to an intellectual disability, while conditions such as dyslexia and dyspraxia are usually referred to as "learning difficulties".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Management of dyslexia</span>

Management of dyslexia depends on a multitude of variables; there is no one specific strategy or set of strategies that will work for all who have dyslexia.

Language-based learning disabilities or LBLD are "heterogeneous" neurological differences that can affect skills such as listening, reasoning, speaking, reading, writing, and math calculations. It is also associated with movement, coordination, and direct attention. LBLD is not usually identified until the child reaches school age. Most people with this disability find it hard to communicate, to express ideas efficiently and what they say may be ambiguous and hard to understand It is a neurological difference. It is often hereditary, and is frequently associated to specific language problems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Classic autism</span> Former neurodevelopmental disorder now classified under autism spectrum disorder

Classic autism, also known as childhood autism, autistic disorder, (early) infantile autism, infantile psychosis, Kanner's autism, Kanner's syndrome, or (formerly) just autism, is a neurodevelopmental condition first described by Leo Kanner in 1943. It is characterized by atypical and impaired development in social interaction and communication as well as restricted, repetitive behaviors, activities, and interests. These symptoms first appear in early childhood and persist throughout life.

Speech and language impairment are basic categories that might be drawn in issues of communication involve hearing, speech, language, and fluency.

Semantic compaction, (Minspeak), conceptually described as polysemic (multi-meaning) iconic encoding, is one of the three ways to represent language in Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). It is a system utilized in AAC devices in which sequences of icons are combined in order to form a word or a phrase. The goal is to increase independent communication in individuals who cannot use speech. Minspeak is the only patented system for Semantic Compaction and is based on multi-meaning icons that code vocabulary in short sequences determined by rule-driven patterns. Minspeak has been used with both children and adults with various disabilities, including cerebral palsy, motor speech disorders, developmental disabilities, autism spectrum disorder, and adult onset disabilities such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS).

Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) is identified when a child has problems with language development that continue into school age and beyond. The language problems have a significant impact on everyday social interactions or educational progress, and occur in the absence of autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability or a known biomedical condition. The most obvious problems are difficulties in using words and sentences to express meanings, but for many children, understanding of language is also a challenge. This may not be evident unless the child is given a formal assessment.

Kate Nation is an experimental psychologist and expert on language and literacy development in school age children. She is Professor of Experimental Psychology and Fellow of St. John's College of the University of Oxford, where she directs the ReadOxford project and the Language and Cognitive Development Research Group.

Social (pragmatic) communication disorder (SPCD), also known as pragmatic language impairment (PLI), is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties in the social use of verbal and nonverbal communication. Individuals who are defined by the acronym "SPCD" struggle to effectively indulge in social interactions, interpret social cues, and may struggle to use words appropriately in social contexts.

Deaf and hard of hearing individuals with additional disabilities are referred to as "Deaf Plus" or "Deaf+". Deaf children with one or more co-occurring disabilities could also be referred to as hearing loss plus additional disabilities or Deafness and Diversity (D.A.D.). About 40–50% of deaf children experience one or more additional disabilities, with learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and visual impairments being the four most concomitant disabilities. Approximately 7–8% of deaf children have a learning disability. Deaf plus individuals utilize various language modalities to best fit their communication needs.

References

  1. ↑ van Kleeck A, Schuele CM (November 2010). "Historical perspectives on literacy in early childhood". Am J Speech Lang Pathol. 19 (4): 341–55. doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2010/09-0038). PMID   20581109. S2CID   44839260.
  2. 1 2 3 Elizabeth B. Keefe; Susan R. Glaser; Susan Copeland; Elizabeth B. Keefe (2007). Effective literacy instruction for students with moderate or severe disabilities . Paul H. Brookes Publishing. ISBN   978-1-55766-837-0. OCLC   77011619.
  3. ↑ Browder, D.; Flowers, C.; Ahlgrim-Delzell, L.; Karvonen, M.; Spooner, F.; Algozzine, R. (2004). "The Alignment of Alternate Assessment Content with Academic and Functional Curricula". The Journal of Special Education. 37 (4): 211–223. doi:10.1177/00224669040370040101. ISSN   0022-4669. S2CID   73640629.
  4. ↑ Brown, L.; Branston, M. B.; Hamre-Nietupski, S.; Pumpian, I.; Certo, N.; Gruenewald, L. (1979). "A Strategy for Developing Chronological-Age-Appropriate and Functional Curricular Content for Severely Handicapped Adolescents and Young Adults". The Journal of Special Education. 13 (1): 81–90. doi:10.1177/002246697901300113. ISSN   0022-4669. S2CID   145477722.
  5. ↑ K.A. Erickson (2000). "All children are ready to learn: An emergent versus readiness perspective in early literacy assessment". Seminars in Speech and Language. 21 (3): 193–202, quiz 202-3. doi:10.1055/s-2000-13193. PMID   10958428. S2CID   19651351.
  6. ↑ D.A. Koppenhaver & K.A. Erickson (2003). "Natural emergent literacy supports for preschoolers with autism and severe communication impairments". Topics in Language Disorders. 23 (4): 283. doi:10.1097/00011363-200310000-00004. S2CID   145683425.
  7. ↑ L.E. Skibbe; K.J. Grimm; T.L. Stanton-Chapman; L.M. Justice; K.L. Pence & R.P. Bowles (2008). Reading Trajectories of Children with Language Difficulties from Preschool Through Fifth Grade. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools.
  8. ↑ E. Kay-Raining Bird; P.L. Cleave & L. McConnel (2000). Reading and Phonological Awareness in Children with Down Syndrome: A Longitudinal Study. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology.
  9. ↑ M.J. Snowling; C. Hulme & R.C. Mercer (2002). A Deficit in Rime Awareness in Children with Down Syndrome. Reading and Writing.
  10. 1 2 N. O’Connor, and P.D. Klein (2004). Exploration of Strategies for Facilitating the Reading Comprehension of High-Functioning Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.
  11. ↑ N. O’Connor, and B. Hermelin (1994). Two Autistic Savant Readers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.
  12. ↑ S.V. Huemer & V. Mann (2010). "A comprehensive profile of decoding and comprehension in autism spectrum disorders". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 40 (4): 485–93. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0892-3. PMC   2837163 . PMID   19915968.
  13. ↑ K. Nation (1999). "Reading skills in hyperlexia: A developmental perspective". Psychological Bulletin. 125 (3): 338–55. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.338. PMID   10349355.
  14. ↑ K. Nation; P. Clarke; B. Wright & C. Williams (2006). Patterns of reading ability in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.
  15. ↑ P. Mirenda (2003). "He's not really a reader...": Perspectives on supporting literacy development in individuals with autism. Topics in Language Disorders.
  16. ↑ K.J. Whalon; S. Al Otaiba & M.E. Delano (2009). Evidence-based reading instruction for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities.
  17. ↑ M. Heimann; K.E. Nelson; T. Tjus & C. Gillberg (1995). Increasing reading and communication skills in children with autism through an interactive multimedia computer program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.
  18. ↑ C. Basil & S. Reyes (2003). Acquisition of literacy skills by children with severe disability. Child Language Teaching and Therapy.
  19. ↑ T.Tjus, M. Heimann & K.E. Nelson (1998). Gains in literacy through the use of a specially developed multimedia computer strategy. Autism.
  20. ↑ M.B. Coleman-Martin; K.W. Heller; D.F. Cihak; K.L. Irvine (2005). Using computer assisted instruction and the nonverbal reading approach to teach word identification. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities.
  21. ↑ K.C. Hustad; K. Gorton & J. Lee (2010). "Classification of Speech and Language Profiles in 4-year-old Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Prospective Preliminary Study". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 53 (6): 1496–513. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2010/09-0176). PMC   2962882 . PMID   20643795.
  22. 1 2 D.G. Mike (1993). Literacy and cerebral palsy: factors influencing literacy learning in a self-contained setting. Journal of Literacy Research.
  23. ↑ D.A. Koppenhaver & D.E. Yoder (1993). Classroom literacy instruction for children with severe speech and physical impairments (SSPI): what is and what might be. Journal of Literacy Research.
  24. ↑ J. Light & D. McNaughton (1993). Literacy and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC): the expectations and priorities of parents and teachers. Topics in Language Disorders.
  25. ↑ "NEA'S Official Reading Policy" . Retrieved 2011-12-20.
  26. ↑ "Highly Qualified Teachers" . Retrieved 2011-12-20.
  27. ↑ "Role of the reading specialist position statement". International Reading Association. January 2000. Archived from the original on 2012-01-03.
  28. ↑ "Scope of Practice in Speech-Language Pathology". American-Speech-Language-Hearing Association. 2007-09-04.[ permanent dead link ]
  29. ↑ "NASP model: 10 domains of practice". National Association of School Psychologists. 2010.
  30. ↑ "Handwriting". The American Occupational Therapy Association, Inc. Retrieved 2011-12-20.
  31. ↑ Light, J., & Kelford Smith, A. (1993). Home literacy experiences of preschoolers who use AAC systems and of their nondisabled peers. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 9, 10–25 p. 10.
  32. ↑ Janet M. Sturm Associate Professor, Stephanie A. Spadorcia, James W. Cunningham, Kathleen S. Cali, Amy Staples, Karen Erickson, David E. Yoder & David A. Koppenhaver (2006) What happens to reading between first and third grade? Implications for students who use AAC, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 22:1, 21-36 p. 21, DOI: 10.1080/07434610500243826

^ Anderson, Mark, The WordPen Learning System, Spring 2004

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.