Reading for special needs

Last updated

Reading for special needs has become an area of interest as the understanding of reading has improved. Teaching children with special needs how to read was not historically pursued due to perspectives of a Reading Readiness model. [1] This model assumes that a reader must learn to read in a hierarchical manner such that one skill must be mastered before learning the next skill (e.g., a child might be expected to learn the names of the letters in the alphabet in the correct order before being taught how to read his or her name). [2] This approach often led to teaching sub-skills of reading in a decontextualized manner. This style of teaching made it difficult for children to master these early skills, and as a result, did not advance to more advanced literacy instruction and often continued to receive age-inappropriate instruction (e.g., singing the alphabet song).

Contents

During the mid-to-late 1970s, the education system shifted to targeting functional skills that were age appropriate for people with special needs. [3] [4] This led to teaching sight words that were viewed as necessary for participation in the school and community (e.g., "exit", "danger", "poison", "go"). This approach was an improvement to previous practices, but it limited the range of literacy skills that people with special needs developed. [2]

A newer model for reading development, specifically with regard to early reading development, is emergent literacy, sometimes referred to as early literacy, model. This model purports that children begin reading from birth, and that learning to read is an interactive process based on children's exposure to literate activities. It is under this new model that children with developmental disabilities and special needs have been considered to be able to learn to read. [5] [6] Note that there is limited research regarding reading in special needs, but this article attempts to represent the most current evidence on this topic.

Literacy

Literacy refers to both reading and writing skills, writing being the symbolic representation of language, and reading the cognitive process of decoding and understanding the written symbol system. These are very broad and basic definitions as the definitions of these terms often vary based on the model or approach.

Approaches and models of reading

There are multiple models and approaches of reading. A few are discussed below.

The Simple View of Reading

The Simple View of Reading was originally described by Gough and Tunmer in 1986 [7] and modified by Hoover and Gough in 1990. [8] The Simple View suggests that the ultimate goal of reading comprehension, and in order to have good reading comprehension, one needs to have good decoding ability (e.g., ability to interpret the symbols) and good listening comprehension (e.g., one's ability to understand oral language). [9] This model predicts four categories of readers. [10] [11] Readers with poor decoding skills but relatively preserved listening comprehension skills would be considered readers who are poor decoders, or dyslexic. Readers with poor listening comprehension skills are referred to as readers who are poor comprehenders. Readers with poor decoding skills and poor listening comprehension skills are considered poor readers, or sometimes referred to as garden-variety poor readers. Readers who have good decoding and listening comprehension skills are considered typical readers.

The connectionist model of reading development

Connectionist models have emphasized an interconnected and interactive system of mappings between printed words (orthography), spoken sounds/words (phonology), and word meanings (semantics). [12] [13] [14] The computation of these three codes (orthographic, phonologic, and semantic) is required for reading. According to Seidenberg and McClelland, [12] one mechanism is involved in reading (including reading regular words, exception words, and nonwords). Through development, experience with meaningful words and spelling-sound correspondences allow one's representation of semantics, orthography, and phonology to be modified. Developing representations of orthography, phonology, and semantics is an interactive process where development of one component influences and is influenced by the other components.

Dual-route approach

The dual-route approach suggests that two separate mechanisms, or routes, can be used in word reading. [15] [16] Words that follow spelling-sound rules (including regular words and nonwords that follow letter-to-sound rules) are processed through the nonlexical route. The nonlexical route follows a system of rules specifying the relationship between letters and sounds to process words. Conversely, exception words, or irregular words, that do not follow the spelling-sound rules are processed through the lexical route. The lexical route can be thought of as a dictionary lookup procedure. [15]

Whole language

Reading is a linguistic act. With this, some have applied the whole language philosophy to reading instruction. In the early 1990s, a movement for whole language encouraged educators to view learning to read as being similar to learning to talk. [17] [18] [19] This philosophy emphasizes learning language and reading skills through meaningful experiences instead of through decontextualized rule teaching. Some other terms for this approach of reading instruction include literature-based instruction and guided reading.

Balanced literacy instruction

To meet the recommendations of breadth and depth of literacy instruction set by the National Reading Panel (2000), [20] many literacy programs incorporate four main components: guided reading, which focuses on comprehension skills though exposure to a wide range of literature experiences; word study, which incorporates phonics, phonemic awareness, and vocabulary instruction; self-selected reading, which provides children daily experiences in independent reading time; and writing, which focuses on both the mechanics of composition and on communicating effectively for multiple purposes (Foley & Stables, 2007). [2]

Populations at increased risk

Children with language difficulties are at increased risk for reading disorders or difficulties that can occur early on in preschool and continue on throughout development. [21] This population includes children with language abilities that fall below expectations for their chronological age, at a clinical level or with weaknesses in language that are not severe enough to meet criteria for a clinical diagnosis of a language disorder. Children with other disabilities can also have language impairments that can cause an increase risk of developing reading problems. Such disabilities include (but are not restricted to) specific language impairment, phonological disorder, language disorder, developmental disability, autism spectrum disorder, Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and cerebral palsy.

People with severe speech difficulties can use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices. The importance and positive outcomes of literacy for people with language difficulties and AAC users are endless. As with everyone literacy opens doors to education, employment, and allows "individuals to exchange information, maintain interpersonal communication, to convey needs and wants and to develop channels of personal expression". [22] However, for the AAC user literacy skills may be of even greater importance as reading and writing "allows individuals with severe speech impairments the opportunity to initiate topics, to develop ideas, to provide clarification, to communicate independently, to interact with a diverse audience, and to express ideas, thoughts, and feelings." [23] Unfortunately, even given the importance of literacy skills people who use AAC are often not given "authentic learning opportunities" to learn literacy skills. [24] More research is needed on how to increase literacy instruction to people with severe speech difficulties and users of AAC.

Intervention team

Classroom teachers [25] are expected to provide the primary source of reading instruction for most students. Special education teachers [26] may supplement the classroom instruction in reading and writing skills based on the independent performance of their students. Other professionals including a reading specialist, [27] a speech-language pathologist, [28] an educational or school psychologist, [29] and an occupational therapist [30] may also provide reading and writing support to individuals with reading and writing difficulties.

Subgroups of reading problems

Difficulties with decoding

In general terms, individuals who have challenges in decoding are referred to as poor decoders. Dyslexia is a more specific disability where individuals demonstrate difficulty with decoding. Poor decoders have not acquired the basic knowledge of sound-letter correspondence rules, specifically phonological skills (skills that include identifying and manipulation of words, syllables, onsets, rimes, and phonemes – individual sounds). In addition, language abilities often evidence poor morphological and syntactic knowledge. [31] [32] Interventions that target decoding abilities may include instruction in phonics, phonological awareness, and phonemic awareness (see also Dyslexia intervention).

Difficulties with reading rate

Some individuals may have difficulty with reading rate, where they have accurate word recognition and often normal comprehension abilities, but reading speed that is typically one and a half years below grade level. [32] Strategies that may improve reading rate include: shared/partner reading, guided reading, repeated reading, and silent reading, listening to another person fluently read (National Reading Panel, 2000 [33] ).

Difficulties with reading fluency

Individuals may also have trouble with reading fluency, or accurate, smooth, and appropriately paced reading with accurate expression. Strategies: shared/partner reading, guided reading, repeated reading, and silent reading, listening to another person fluently read (National Reading Panel, 2000 [33] ).

Difficulties with reading comprehension

Some individuals may have skills within the normal range on the above factors but may still have trouble with reading comprehension. These individuals are often referred to as poor comprehenders, or individuals with a specific comprehension deficit. Strategies that can be used to improve reading comprehension include: building oral and auditory language skills, including skills in: vocabulary knowledge, narratives, listening comprehension, and figurative language. [34] Additionally, when working toward increasing reading comprehension for specific texts, one can preteach vocabulary words and discuss prior knowledge on a topic related to the text before reading. (For more strategies and information, see reading comprehension.)

Mixed reading difficulties

Children can have difficulties in more than one of the areas previously listed.

Reading in special populations

Reading difficulties in special populations such as Downs syndrome, autism, and cerebral palsy follow similar patterns of reading development and reading difficulty as described in the subgroups of reading problems section.

Down syndrome

It has been found true for children with intellectual disabilities, such as children with Down syndrome, that phonological awareness skills are often deficient and require targeted teaching. [35] For example, studies have found that children with Down syndrome show deficits in phonological awareness, and though they can develop such skills, often rely on sight word vocabulary knowledge rather than phonological awareness skills to decode words. [36] Given this, it is recommended that phonological awareness skills be taught in a systematic manner with explicit instruction of how to use these skills when reading.

Autism

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have been identified as having particular difficulties with reading comprehension despite normal decoding abilities,. [37] [38] [39] Historically, those individuals who are especially good at decoding but have poor comprehension are considered to have hyperlexia. [40] Not all individuals with autism, however, are poor comprehenders as there is a wide range of abilities in children on the spectrum. [41] Despite the type of reader an individual with autism might be, individuals should be given the opportunity to learn to read. [42] Very few studies have examined the effectiveness of interventions for reading for individuals with ASD. [43] Using computer-assisted instruction to implement programs for individuals with ASD that target skills in decoding could be an effective way to help improve these skills in these individuals. [44] [45] [46] [47] Procedural facilitation tasks such as prereading questions, anaphoric cuing, or a cloze task helped to improve reading comprehension with the anaphoric cuing task being the most effective task. [37]

Cerebral palsy

Children with cerebral palsy (CP) may or may not have motor speech impairments and/or language impairments, [48] which can lead to reading difficulties. Often children with CP can be classified as having severe speech and physical impairments (SSPI), but children with other disorders can fall into this category as well. Children with SSPI can be at increased risk for reading difficulties not only because they may have language impairments, but also because they can have limited literary experiences and limited reading instruction. [49] [50] Additionally, parents and teachers may have low expectations of the child's ability to become a reader, which may influence experiences with text and impact literacy instruction. [51] Assistive technology (also Alternative and Augmentative Communication devices; AAC) can be used to overcome physical barriers to manipulating books, and to augment speech motor and language difficulties (e.g., type, or select symbols to identify rhyming words), and cognitive impairments (to provide needed support required for target skill acquisition) (Copeland & Keef, 2007, see chapter 9). [2] Of course, access to assistive devices is not sufficient for reading development. Appropriate reading instruction is required (e.g., instruction in phonological awareness skills, phonemic awareness skills, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, text comprehension, and book conventions), regularly conducted story reading sessions, constructive AT/AAC use to target literacy skills, high expectations of student literacy achievement, and text-rich environments have been found to be important for developing literacy skills in children with CP. [49]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hyperlexia</span> Significantly advanced reading ability in children

Hyperlexia is a syndrome characterized by a child's precocious ability to read. It was initially identified by Norman E. Silberberg and Margaret C. Silberberg (1967), who defined it as the precocious ability to read words without prior training in learning to read, typically before the age of five. They indicated that children with hyperlexia have a significantly higher word-decoding ability than their reading comprehension levels. Children with hyperlexia also present with an intense fascination for written material at a very early age.

A communication disorder is any disorder that affects an individual's ability to comprehend, detect, or apply language and speech to engage in dialogue effectively with others. This also encompasses deficiencies in verbal and non-verbal communication styles. The delays and disorders can range from simple sound substitution to the inability to understand or use one's native language. This article covers subjects such as diagnosis, the DSM-IV, the DSM-V, and examples like sensory impairments, aphasia, learning disabilities, and speech disorders.

Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder is a communication disorder in which both the receptive and expressive areas of communication may be affected in any degree, from mild to severe. Children with this disorder have difficulty understanding words and sentences. This impairment is classified by deficiencies in expressive and receptive language development that is not attributed to sensory deficits, nonverbal intellectual deficits, a neurological condition, environmental deprivation or psychiatric impairments. Research illustrates that 2% to 4% of five year olds have mixed receptive-expressive language disorder. This distinction is made when children have issues in expressive language skills, the production of language, and when children also have issues in receptive language skills, the understanding of language. Those with mixed receptive-language disorder have a normal left-right anatomical asymmetry of the planum temporale and parietale. This is attributed to a reduced left hemisphere functional specialization for language. Taken from a measure of cerebral blood flow (SPECT) in phonemic discrimination tasks, children with mixed receptive-expressive language disorder do not exhibit the expected predominant left hemisphere activation. Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder is also known as receptive-expressive language impairment (RELI) or receptive language disorder.

Phonological awareness is an individual's awareness of the phonological structure, or sound structure, of words. Phonological awareness is an important and reliable predictor of later reading ability and has, therefore, been the focus of much research.

Specific language impairment (SLI) is diagnosed when a child's language does not develop normally and the difficulties cannot be accounted for by generally slow development, physical abnormality of the speech apparatus, autism spectrum disorder, apraxia, acquired brain damage or hearing loss. Twin studies have shown that it is under genetic influence. Although language impairment can result from a single-gene mutation, this is unusual. More commonly SLI results from the combined influence of multiple genetic variants, each of which is found in the general population, as well as environmental influences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Augmentative and alternative communication</span> Techniques used for those with communication impairments

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) encompasses the communication methods used to supplement or replace speech or writing for those with impairments in the production or comprehension of spoken or written language. AAC is used by those with a wide range of speech and language impairments, including congenital impairments such as cerebral palsy, intellectual impairment and autism, and acquired conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinson's disease. AAC can be a permanent addition to a person's communication or a temporary aid. Stephen Hawking, probably the best-known user of AAC, had amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and communicated through a speech-generating device.

A reading disability is a condition in which a person displays difficulty reading. Examples of reading disabilities include: developmental dyslexia, And alexia,

Language disorders or language impairments are disorders that involve the processing of linguistic information. Problems that may be experienced can involve grammar, semantics (meaning), or other aspects of language. These problems may be receptive, expressive, or a combination of both. Examples include specific language impairment, better defined as developmental language disorder, or DLD, and aphasia, among others. Language disorders can affect both spoken and written language, and can also affect sign language; typically, all forms of language will be impaired.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Learning disability</span> Range of neurodevelopmental conditions

Learning disability, learning disorder, or learning difficulty is a condition in the brain that causes difficulties comprehending or processing information and can be caused by several different factors. Given the "difficulty learning in a typical manner", this does not exclude the ability to learn in a different manner. Therefore, some people can be more accurately described as having a "learning difference", thus avoiding any misconception of being disabled with a possible lack of an ability to learn and possible negative stereotyping. In the United Kingdom, the term "learning disability" generally refers to an intellectual disability, while conditions such as dyslexia and dyspraxia are usually referred to as "learning difficulties".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Management of dyslexia</span>

Management of dyslexia depends on a multitude of variables; there is no one specific strategy or set of strategies that will work for all who have dyslexia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reading</span> Taking in the meaning of letters or symbols

Reading is the process of taking in the sense or meaning of letters, symbols, etc., especially by sight or touch.

Language-based learning disabilities or LBLD are "heterogeneous" neurological differences that can affect skills such as listening, reasoning, speaking, reading, writing, and math calculations. It is also associated with movement, coordination, and direct attention. LBLD is not usually identified until the child reaches school age. Most people with this disability find it hard to communicate, to express ideas efficiently and what they say may be ambiguous and hard to understand It is a neurological difference. It is often hereditary, and is frequently associated to specific language problems.

Dyslexia is a reading disorder wherein an individual experiences trouble with reading. Individuals with dyslexia have normal levels of intelligence but can exhibit difficulties with spelling, reading fluency, pronunciation, "sounding out" words, writing out words, and reading comprehension. The neurological nature and underlying causes of dyslexia are an active area of research. However, some experts believe that the distinction of dyslexia as a separate reading disorder and therefore recognized disability is a topic of some controversy.

Dyslexia is a complex, lifelong disorder involving difficulty in learning to read or interpret words, letters and other symbols. Dyslexia does not affect general intelligence, but is often co-diagnosed with ADHD. There are at least three sub-types of dyslexia that have been recognized by researchers: orthographic, or surface dyslexia, phonological dyslexia and mixed dyslexia where individuals exhibit symptoms of both orthographic and phonological dyslexia. Studies have shown that dyslexia is genetic and can be passed down through families, but it is important to note that, although a genetic disorder, there is no specific locus in the brain for reading and writing. The human brain does have language centers, but written language is a cultural artifact, and a very complex one requiring brain regions designed to recognize and interpret written symbols as representations of language in rapid synchronization. The complexity of the system and the lack of genetic predisposition for it is one possible explanation for the difficulty in acquiring and understanding written language.

Speech and language impairment are basic categories that might be drawn in issues of communication involve hearing, speech, language, and fluency.

Emergent literacy is a term that is used to explain a child's knowledge of reading and writing skills before they learn how to read and write words. It signals a belief that, in literate society, young children—even one- and two-year-olds—are in the process of becoming literate. Through the support of parents, caregivers, and educators, a child can successfully progress from emergent to conventional reading.

Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) is identified when a child has problems with language development that continue into school age and beyond. The language problems have a significant impact on everyday social interactions or educational progress, and occur in the absence of autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability or a known biomedical condition. The most obvious problems are difficulties in using words and sentences to express meanings, but for many children, understanding of language is also a challenge. This may not be evident unless the child is given a formal assessment.

Kate Nation is an experimental psychologist and expert on language and literacy development in school age children. She is Professor of Experimental Psychology and Fellow of St. John's College of the University of Oxford, where she directs the ReadOxford project and the Language and Cognitive Development Research Group.

Social (pragmatic) communication disorder (SPCD), also known as pragmatic language impairment (PLI), is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties in the social use of verbal and nonverbal communication. Individuals who are defined by the acronym "SPCD" struggle to effectively indulge in social interactions, interpret social cues, and may struggle to use words appropriately in social contexts.

The simple view of reading is a scientific theory that a student's ability to understand written words depends on how well they sound out (decode) the words and understand the meaning of those words. Specifically, their reading comprehension can be predicted by multiplying their skill in decoding the written words by their ability to understand the meaning of those words. It is expressed in this equation:

References

  1. ↑ van Kleeck A, Schuele CM (November 2010). "Historical perspectives on literacy in early childhood". Am J Speech Lang Pathol. 19 (4): 341–55. doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2010/09-0038). PMID   20581109. S2CID   44839260.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Elizabeth B. Keefe; Susan R. Glaser; Susan Copeland; Elizabeth B. Keefe (2007). Effective literacy instruction for students with moderate or severe disabilities . Paul H. Brookes Publishing. ISBN   978-1-55766-837-0. OCLC   77011619.
  3. ↑ Browder, D.; Flowers, C.; Ahlgrim-Delzell, L.; Karvonen, M.; Spooner, F.; Algozzine, R. (2004). "The Alignment of Alternate Assessment Content with Academic and Functional Curricula". The Journal of Special Education. 37 (4): 211–223. doi:10.1177/00224669040370040101. ISSN   0022-4669. S2CID   73640629.
  4. ↑ Brown, L.; Branston, M. B.; Hamre-Nietupski, S.; Pumpian, I.; Certo, N.; Gruenewald, L. (1979). "A Strategy for Developing Chronological-Age-Appropriate and Functional Curricular Content for Severely Handicapped Adolescents and Young Adults". The Journal of Special Education. 13 (1): 81–90. doi:10.1177/002246697901300113. ISSN   0022-4669. S2CID   145477722.
  5. ↑ K.A. Erickson (2000). "All children are ready to learn: An emergent versus readiness perspective in early literacy assessment". Seminars in Speech and Language. 21 (3): 193–202, quiz 202-3. doi:10.1055/s-2000-13193. PMID   10958428. S2CID   19651351.
  6. ↑ D.A. Koppenhaver & K.A. Erickson (2003). "Natural emergent literacy supports for preschoolers with autism and severe communication impairments". Topics in Language Disorders. 23 (4): 283. doi:10.1097/00011363-200310000-00004. S2CID   145683425.
  7. ↑ Gough, P. B.; Tunmer, W. E. (1986). "Decoding, Reading, and Reading Disability". Remedial and Special Education. 7 (1): 6–10. doi:10.1177/074193258600700104. ISSN   0741-9325. S2CID   145093377.
  8. ↑ W.A. Hoover & P.B. Gough (1990). The Simple View of Reading (PDF). Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-11-13. Retrieved 2012-07-26.
  9. ↑ Kendeou P, Savage R, van den Broek P (June 2009). "Revisiting the simple view of reading". Br J Educ Psychol. 79 (Pt 2): 353–70. doi:10.1348/978185408X369020. PMID   19091164. S2CID   207266333.
  10. ↑ Catts HW, Hogan TP, Fey ME (2003). "Subgrouping poor readers on the basis of individual differences in reading-related abilities". J Learn Disabil. 36 (2): 151–64. doi:10.1177/002221940303600208. PMC   2848965 . PMID   15493430.
  11. ↑ Catts HW, Adlof SM, Weismer SE (April 2006). "Language deficits in poor comprehenders: a case for the simple view of reading". J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 49 (2): 278–93. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.383.7493 . doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/023). PMID   16671844. S2CID   12238016.
  12. 1 2 Seidenberg MS, McClelland JL (October 1989). "A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming". Psychol Rev. 96 (4): 523–68. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.127.3083 . doi:10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.523. PMID   2798649.
  13. ↑ Bishop DV, Snowling MJ (November 2004). "Developmental dyslexia and specific language impairment: same or different?". Psychol Bull. 130 (6): 858–86. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.6.858. PMID   15535741. S2CID   5448296.
  14. ↑ Seidenberg MS (2007). "Connectionist models of reading" (PDF). In Gaskell, Gareth; Altmann, Gerry T. M. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of psycholinguistics. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-856897-1. OCLC   104836761. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-02-02.
  15. 1 2 Coltheart, Max; Curtis, Brent; Atkins, Paul; Haller, Micheal (1993). "Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches". Psychological Review. 100 (4): 589–608. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.589. ISSN   0033-295X.
  16. ↑ Schurz M, Sturm D, Richlan F, Kronbichler M, Ladurner G, Wimmer H (February 2010). "A dual-route perspective on brain activation in response to visual words: evidence for a length by lexicality interaction in the visual word form area (VWFA)". NeuroImage. 49 (3): 2649–61. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.10.082. PMC   2989181 . PMID   19896538.
  17. ↑ "How Should Reading be Taught? by K. Rayner, B.R. Foorman, C.A. Perfetti, D. Pesetsky, M.S. Seidenberg (2002)" (PDF). Scientific America inc.
  18. ↑ J.A. Norris (1992). Some Questions and Answers about Whole Language. American Journal of Speech Language Pathology.
  19. ↑ Norris, Janet; Hoffman, Paul R (1993). Whole language intervention for school-age children. San Diego, Calif.: Singular Pub. Group. ISBN   978-1-56593-070-4. OCLC   469305849.
  20. ↑ "Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read". NIHCD. Archived from the original on 2008-07-05.
  21. ↑ L.E. Skibbe; K.J. Grimm; T.L. Stanton-Chapman; L.M. Justice; K.L. Pence & R.P. Bowles (2008). Reading Trajectories of Children with Language Difficulties from Preschool Through Fifth Grade. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools.
  22. ↑ Light, J., & Kelford Smith, A. (1993). Home literacy experiences of preschoolers who use AAC systems and of their nondisabled peers. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 9, 10–25 p. 10.
  23. ↑ Light, J., & Kelford Smith, A. (1993). Home literacy experiences of preschoolers who use AAC systems and of their nondisabled peers. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 9, 10–25 p.10
  24. ↑ Janet M. Sturm Associate Professor, Stephanie A. Spadorcia, James W. Cunningham, Kathleen S. Cali, Amy Staples, Karen Erickson, David E. Yoder & David A. Koppenhaver (2006) What happens to reading between first and third grade? Implications for students who use AAC, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 22:1, 21-36 p. 21, DOI: 10.1080/07434610500243826
  25. ↑ "NEA'S Official Reading Policy" . Retrieved 2011-12-20.
  26. ↑ "Highly Qualified Teachers" . Retrieved 2011-12-20.
  27. ↑ "Role of the reading specialist position statement". International Reading Association. January 2000. Archived from the original on 2012-01-03.
  28. ↑ "Scope of Practice in Speech-Language Pathology". American-Speech-Language-Hearing Association. 2007-09-04.[ permanent dead link ]
  29. ↑ "NASP model: 10 domains of practice". National Association of School Psychologists. 2010.
  30. ↑ "Handwriting". The American Occupational Therapy Association, Inc. Retrieved 2011-12-20.
  31. ↑ Catts HW, Fey ME, Tomblin JB, Zhang X (December 2002). "A longitudinal investigation of reading outcomes in children with language impairments". J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 45 (6): 1142–57. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2002/093). PMID   12546484. S2CID   27888843.
  32. 1 2 Catts, Hugh William; Kamhi, Alan G. (2011). Language and Reading Disabilities (3rd Edition) (Allyn & Bacon Communication Sciences and Disorders). Boston, Mass: Allyn & Bacon. ISBN   978-0-13-707277-4. OCLC   707726486.
  33. 1 2 L. Wiebe Griffith & T.V. Rasinski (2004). A focus on Fluency: How One Teacher Incorporated Fluency with her Reading Curriculum. The Reading Teacher.
  34. ↑ P.J. Clarke; M.J. Snowling; E. Truelove & C. Hulme (2010). Ameliorating Children's Reading-Comprehension Difficulties: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Psychological Science.
  35. ↑ E. Kay-Raining Bird; P.L. Cleave & L. McConnel (2000). Reading and Phonological Awareness in Children with Down Syndrome: A Longitudinal Study. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology.
  36. ↑ M.J. Snowling; C. Hulme & R.C. Mercer (2002). A Deficit in Rime Awareness in Children with Down Syndrome. Reading and Writing.
  37. 1 2 N. O’Connor, and P.D. Klein (2004). Exploration of Strategies for Facilitating the Reading Comprehension of High-Functioning Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.
  38. ↑ N. O’Connor, and B. Hermelin (1994). Two Autistic Savant Readers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.
  39. ↑ S.V. Huemer & V. Mann (2010). "A comprehensive profile of decoding and comprehension in autism spectrum disorders". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 40 (4): 485–93. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0892-3. PMC   2837163 . PMID   19915968.
  40. ↑ K. Nation (1999). "Reading skills in hyperlexia: A developmental perspective". Psychological Bulletin. 125 (3): 338–55. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.338. PMID   10349355.
  41. ↑ K. Nation; P. Clarke; B. Wright & C. Williams (2006). Patterns of reading ability in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.
  42. ↑ P. Mirenda (2003). "He's not really a reader...": Perspectives on supporting literacy development in individuals with autism. Topics in Language Disorders.
  43. ↑ K.J. Whalon; S. Al Otaiba & M.E. Delano (2009). Evidence-based reading instruction for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities.
  44. ↑ M. Heimann; K.E. Nelson; T. Tjus & C. Gillberg (1995). Increasing reading and communication skills in children with autism through an interactive multimedia computer program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.
  45. ↑ C. Basil & S. Reyes (2003). Acquisition of literacy skills by children with severe disability. Child Language Teaching and Therapy.
  46. ↑ T.Tjus, M. Heimann & K.E. Nelson (1998). Gains in literacy through the use of a specially developed multimedia computer strategy. Autism.
  47. ↑ M.B. Coleman-Martin; K.W. Heller; D.F. Cihak; K.L. Irvine (2005). Using computer assisted instruction and the nonverbal reading approach to teach word identification. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities.
  48. ↑ K.C. Hustad; K. Gorton & J. Lee (2010). "Classification of Speech and Language Profiles in 4-year-old Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Prospective Preliminary Study". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 53 (6): 1496–513. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2010/09-0176). PMC   2962882 . PMID   20643795.
  49. 1 2 D.G. Mike (1993). Literacy and cerebral palsy: factors influencing literacy learning in a self-contained setting. Journal of Literacy Research.
  50. ↑ D.A. Koppenhaver & D.E. Yoder (1993). Classroom literacy instruction for children with severe speech and physical impairments (SSPI): what is and what might be. Journal of Literacy Research.
  51. ↑ J. Light & D. McNaughton (1993). Literacy and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC): the expectations and priorities of parents and teachers. Topics in Language Disorders.

^ Anderson, Mark, The WordPen Learning System, Spring 2004

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.