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De-escalation refers to the methods and actions taken to decrease the severity of a conflict, whether of physical, verbal or another nature. It is the opposite of escalation. De-escalation may also refer to approaches in conflict resolution, by which specific measures are taken to avoid behaviours that escalate conflict. De-escalation can be modelled with game theory. [1]
In psychiatric settings, de-escalation is aimed at calmly communicating with an agitated client in order to understand, manage, and resolve their concerns. Ultimately, these actions are intended to reduce the client's agitation and potential for present or future aggression or violence. An insufficient or overdue intervention may leave staff needing to use coercive measures to manage an aggressive or violent client. Coercive measures, such as chemical or mechanical restraints, or seclusion, are damaging to the therapeutic relationship and harmful to clients and staff. [2] [3]
As of 2016, there are 19 articles in literature that define or provide a model of de-escalation. [4] Articles converge on a number of themes (i.e. de-escalation should involve safely, calmly, and empathetically supporting the client with their concerns).
Hankin et al.’s (2011) review of four de-escalation studies reflects the somewhat unclear state of de-escalation research. Their review settles on eight goals, seven elements, 15 general techniques, and 15 other techniques divided into three subheadings. [5]
Price & Baker (2012) identify seven themes across relevant papers: three related to staff skills (e.g. empathetic concern, calm appearance and gentle tone of voice) and four related to the process of intervention (e.g. establishing rapport, maintaining safety, problem solving and setting limits). [6]
The available literature provides clinical descriptions of effective de-escalation based on qualitative data and professional observations. However, these thematic analyses need to be supported by more objective data; one hallmark of such objectivity would be an empirical scale or quantitative measure of de-escalation.[ citation needed ]
An English modified version of the De-Escalating Aggressive Behaviour Scale (DABS) identifies seven qualities necessary for de-escalation:
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Starting around 2015, after facing criticism after numerous high-profile killings of civilians by police officers, some[ which? ] police forces in the US adopted de-escalation training, designed to reduce the risk of confrontations turning violent or deadly for anyone involved. [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]
The FIRST STEP Act prison reform bill, passed under the Trump administration, mandates de-escalation training, especially for "incidents that involve the unique needs of individuals who have a mental illness or cognitive deficit." [14]
Richards (2007) states that de-escalation is the act of moving from a state of high tension to a state of reduced tension. [15] Bell (2018) points out that the reason there is heightened tension in law enforcement today than ever before is due to technology. [16] Media reports on the use of force, racial unrest, riots and injustice make it seem like conflicts between police and citizens are happening every day. Bell [16] notes that because people can so readily view these conflicts between police and citizens through technology, people have become resistant to or challenging of law enforcement. In response, the police have had to become engaged in social media, ethics training, diversity training and de-escalation programs. [16]
Bell notes that police are different from average citizens. He states that citizens have a “duty to retreat" while trained officers are expected to pursue and make arrests if need be. Sometimes officers have some discretion in how they will handle a situation such as when an encounter has the potential to become violent. It is at these times that “officers can turn to de-escalation tactics and still complete their mission to protect and serve.” [16] Oliva et al. note, “As the role of police officers continues to expand from exclusively crime fighting to encompass other service-oriented functions, they must be able to recognize the characteristics of individuals in crisis in order to provide an effective and helpful resolution to the situation while reducing liability and risk of injury” (p. 16.) Hence the need for de-escalation tactics on the part of law enforcement officers. [17]
De-escalation tactics predominantly revolved around securing the scene at hand and attempting to calmly communicate with the citizen involved. Andrew Bell describes several de-escalation practices to assist in a potentially violent situation: [16]
Oliva et al. suggest the following basic de-escalation techniques: securing the scene, remove distractions or disruptive people from the area. Further, "The officer should remain calm and speak slowly, in short sentences, to encourage communication. The responding officer should also present a genuine willingness to understand and help". [17] Oliva et al. go on to outline the following specific de-escalation techniques:
Oliva et al. also note behaviours that officers should avoid when attempting to de-escalate a situation which include: Not asking “why” questions as it makes the person defensive, they shouldn't rush the person, never speak too loudly, they should keep their feelings from interfering, they shouldn't challenge a person if they are having delusions or hallucinations but neither should they agree they are real. [17]
One of the most prominent de-escalation programs was developed by The Memphis Crisis Intervention Team or CIT. [18] This program, which has come to be known as the Memphis Model, provides law enforcement with crisis intervention training to particularly help those with mental illness. This program is aimed at diverting those in a mental health crisis from ending up in jail. The goal of the program is to improve the safety of officers, family members and people in the community and to direct people with mental illness away from the judicial system and into the healthcare system. Through this program, officers are given 40 hours of comprehensive training that includes de-escalation techniques. Officers engage in role-playing various scenarios as part of this program.
According to The Memphis Crisis Intervention Team, research on the efficacy of CIT shows that it helps officers feel more confident, increases jail diversion for those with mental illness, increases the likelihood that those with mental illness get treatment, and injury to officers is significantly reduced. [18] Compton et al. (2008) conducted a comprehensive review of the existing research on the effectiveness of the Memphis Model of the Crisis Intervention Team. [19] While research is limited, the authors note that there is preliminary support that the Memphis Model may be helpful in connecting those with mental illness to the psychiatric services that they need. The authors further note that police officers knowledge and confidence improve with such training. Arrest rates also appear to be lower by officers trained in the CIT model.
According to PBS, [20] the Memphis Model has expanded to approximately 3,000 law enforcement agencies across the United States. However, there are shortcomings to the research done on the effectiveness of the CIT programs such as lack of control groups and small sample sizes. [19] The CIT programs around the country seem limited to addressing instituting de-escalation interventions with the mentally ill and not with the broader range of offenders that law enforcement officers may encounter. Furthermore, not all officers are trained in CIT; only self-selected police officers participate in this specialized training. [21]
Traditional deescalation training relies on a combination of direct instruction (e.g., lectures, presentations, webinars), group discussion, and live "peer role-play" among class participants. The experiential aspect of role-play (both simulated and with live peers) has been found to be especially important for helping trainees develop core de-escalation skills and be able to deploy those skills in high-pressure situations. [22] Accordingly, in 2023 U.S. Senators introduced S. 2637, to fund the development and distribution of a federal law enforcement training program that uses "live-action simulations and role playing to place law enforcement personnel in an interactive learning environment to replicate real-life scenarios or teach particular skills or techniques." Those skills and techniques must include situational awareness, critical decision-making and problem-solving, crisis intervention, and de-escalation. [23]
Work in other fields (especially healthcare) has drawn into question the value of live peer role-play, over other options for interactive training. Researchers have found that this is because the live peer role-play experience can vary so greatly with the quality of the training facilitator and acting skills of one's partner in role-play exercises. Participants reported that peer role-play is generally inferior to other role-play options that are aimed at greater consistency and authenticity. [24] This has led an increasing number of agencies and organizations in healthcare and law enforcement to adopt simulation-based de-escalation training over peer roleplay. Simulation-based training ensures a consistent and engaging experience for all trainees.
Simulation-based training follows many of the basic de-escalation approaches noted above (e.g. effective communication and assessment of the scene) but is done through screen-based or head-mounted virtual reality simulator. Notable simulation-based de-escalation training systems include FAAC's MILO Range System (a screen-based simulator) and Apex Officer's Virtual Reality Training (a head-mounted VR simulator). These training systems address a range of de-escalation situations not limited just to work with the mentally ill. [25]
Screen-based simulators have been in use in law enforcement training for since the 1990s. [26] [27] While early systems were rudimentary and focused on a single domain (like marksmanship or pursuit driving), by the early 2000s they'd expanded to include de-escalation and other soft skills.
Today, screen-based simulators are generally understood to offer the broadest range of training options. They can run either computer-generated simulations, or those filmed in high-definition video using live actors. These simulations can be used for marksmanship (including live fire ), use-of-force, driving, or de-escalation/interaction/communication training by single officers, groups of officers, or teams of officers and non-law enforcement personal (such as social workers). [28]
Head-mounted virtual reality systems like Apex Officer's Virtual Reality Training (introduced to the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) at their 126th Annual Conference and Exposition in Chicago, Illinois in October 2019. [29] ) are more limited in their offerings. Despite being more immersive according to some studies, [30] the reliance on lower-fidelity computer-generated environments and characters make such systems better suited to single-person training on decision-making and de-escalation.
In the military, de-escalation is a way to prevent military conflict escalation. A historic example is the teaching harvested from the Proud Prophet war simulation of a conflict between the US and the USSR, which took place in 1983. In war-time diplomacy, de-escalation is used as an exit strategy, sometimes called an "off-ramp" or "slip road". In such cases, an alternative peaceful resolution is offered to a belligerent (i.e. nation or person engaged in war or conflict) in order to avoid further bloodshed. [31] [32] [33] Restraint or appeasement against interventionism can in some cases lead to escalation instead of de-escalation. [34] Deterrence is one strategy to decrease conflict severity. [35] In asymmetric conflicts a probabilistic escalation might be rational for one side in some situations, resulting in challenges for de-escalation. [36] "De-escalation through escalation" strategy hopes for increased probability of a diplomatic deal or further de-escalation. [37]
Physical restraint refers to means of purposely limiting or obstructing the freedom of a person's or an animal's bodily movement.
Anger management is a psycho-therapeutic program for anger prevention and control. It has been described as deploying anger successfully. Anger is frequently a result of frustration, or of feeling blocked or thwarted from something the subject feels is important. Anger can also be a defensive response to underlying fear or feelings of vulnerability or powerlessness. Anger management programs consider anger to be a motivation caused by an identifiable reason which can be logically analyzed and addressed.
A police academy, also known as a law enforcement training center, police college, or police university, is a training school for police cadets, designed to prepare them for the law enforcement agency they will be joining upon graduation, or to otherwise certify an individual as a law enforcement officer, typically a police officer.
Psychiatric nursing or mental health nursing is the appointed position of a nurse that specialises in mental health, and cares for people of all ages experiencing mental illnesses or distress. These include: neurodevelopmental disorders, schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, mood disorders, addiction, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, eating disorders, suicidal thoughts, psychosis, paranoia, and self-harm.
Roleplay simulation is an experiential learning method in which either amateur or professional roleplayers improvise with learners as part of a simulated scenario. Roleplay is designed primarily to build first-person experience in a safe and supportive environment. Roleplay is widely acknowledged as a powerful technique across multiple avenues of training and education.
Medical restraints are physical restraints used during certain medical procedures to restrain patients with (supposedly) the minimum of discomfort and pain and to prevent them from injuring themselves or others.
Suicide intervention is a direct effort to prevent a person or persons from attempting to take their own life or lives intentionally.
A licensed clinical professional counselor (LCPC) is a professional who has been qualified to provide psychotherapy and other counselling services. LCPCs are trained to work with individuals, families, and groups to treat mental, behavioural and emotional problems and disorders. The main goal of LCPCs is to use counselling strategies to help people live a more satisfying life, which typically involves identifying a goal and finding potential solutions.
Crisis intervention is a time-limited intervention with a specific psychotherapeutic approach to immediately stabilize those in crisis.
The Mental Evaluation Unit (MEU), including the Systemwide Mental Assessment Response Team (SMART), is the police crisis intervention team of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), working with people suspected of having a mental illness. The MEU seeks to de-escalate situations where mentally-ill suspects are believed be involved.
A Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) is a police mental health collaborative program found in North America. The term "CIT" is often used to describe both a program and a training in law enforcement to help guide interactions between law enforcement and those living with a mental illness.
Verbal self-defense or verbal aikido is the art of using one's words to prevent, de-escalate, or end an attempted verbal or physical assault.
The management of domestic violence deals with the treatment of victims of domestic violence and preventing repetitions of such violence. The response to domestic violence in Western countries is typically a combined effort between law enforcement, social services, and health care. The role of each has evolved as domestic violence has been brought more into public view.
Police reform in the United States is an ongoing political movement that seeks to reform systems of law enforcement throughout the United States. Many goals of the police reform movement center on police accountability. Specific goals may include: lowering the criminal intent standard, limiting or abolishing qualified immunity for law enforcement officers, sensitivity training, conflict prevention and mediation training, updating legal frameworks, and granting administrative subpoena power to the U.S. Department of Justice for "pattern or practice" investigations into police misconduct and police brutality.
Morton Bard was an American psychologist, known for the research he undertook on the psychology of crime victims. He was a one-time member of the New York Police Department, a psychologist, and a professor who studied the reactions of crime victims.
CAHOOTS is a mental-health-crisis intervention program in Eugene, Oregon, which has handled some lower-risk emergency calls involving mental illness and homelessness since 1989. This makes it the earliest, or one of the earliest, Mobile Crisis Teams.
The Minnesota Board of Peace Officer Standards and Training (POST) is an administrative body of the State of Minnesota that sets regulations and controls the training and licensing of police officers. The Minnesota legislature replaced the Minnesota Peace Officer Training Board (MPOTB) with POST in 1977. Minnesota was the first U.S. state to introduce an occupational licensing system for law enforcement officers. The POST Executive Director reports to the board's 15 members which include 10 law enforcement officers, two educators and two members of the public, all appointed by the governor, plus the superintendent of the state Bureau of Criminal Apprehension, who serves ex officio.
A wellness check is an in-person visit from one or more law enforcement officers, especially in response to a request from a friend or family member who is concerned about the person's wellbeing.
Miles Hall was a 23-year-old African American unarmed man who was fatally shot by police officers from the Walnut Creek California Police Department a few blocks from his home during a mental health emergency. His death sparked widespread protests, drawing attention to the issue of police brutality towards people with behavioral and mental health conditions. His killing has led to significant changes in California's approach to handling mental health emergencies, including the passage the Miles Hall Lifeline Act, funding the 988 alternative to 911 for mental health and suicide emergent situations in California. Additionally, in Contra Costa County, where Miles Hall was killed, A3: The Miles Hall Crisis Call Center has been established where 24/7 trained professional mental health staff triage calls and provide care over the phone or send an in-person care teams if needed.
Vincent B. Van Hasselt is a Professor in Psychology and the Director of the First Responder Research and Training Program at Nova Southeastern University. His area of focus is First Responder Psychology that looks into policing issues, 911 operators, firefighters and crime investigators.
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